THE ODYSSEY PROBLEM: WHY DID A WEEK-LONG VOYAGE BECOME A TEN-YEAR EPIC?

Posted on August 8, 2026 by admin

If Troy was really at Hisarlık, Homer has given us a geographical problem hiding in plain sight

Before We Follow Odysseus: How Old Is the Story We Are Actually Reading?

Before attempting to place Troy, Ithaca or any of the strange lands described in the Odyssey on a modern map, there is a more fundamental question that is rarely given enough attention:

What exactly are the Iliad and Odyssey?

Today we encounter them as books. They have numbered books, fixed lines, recognised place-names and an author conventionally called Homer. That creates the natural impression that somebody sat down approximately 2,700 years ago and wrote the stories much as a modern novelist would.

Almost certainly, that is not how they began.

Modern Homeric scholarship broadly accepts that the Iliad and Odyssey emerged from a much older oral performance tradition. For generations before the poems became stable written texts, professional singers told and retold stories about Troy, Achilles, Helen, Odysseus and the other heroes. The tradition operated over a wide geographical area and for hundreds of years; some scholars allow that parts of the underlying poetic tradition may reach back into the Bronze Age, while aspects of the poetic language itself may preserve still older Indo-European inheritances.

That distinction is crucial to this investigation.

We are therefore probably not reading an eyewitness report written shortly after a war.

Nor, however, are we necessarily reading a completely invented story created in the eighth century BCE.

What we have is something much more interesting:

A VERY OLD STORY THAT WAS KEPT ALIVE BY HUMAN MEMORY BEFORE IT BECAME A BOOK.

🗣️ HOW COULD A STORY THIS LARGE SURVIVE WITHOUT WRITING?

At first this sounds almost impossible.

The Iliad contains more than 15,000 lines and the Odyssey more than 12,000. How could stories of this scale survive for centuries before being written down?

The answer lies in the way oral poetry worked.

The pioneering studies of Milman Parry and Albert Lord demonstrated that oral epic singers did not normally memorise a gigantic text word-for-word in the way an actor memorises a script.

Instead, they mastered a specialised system of:

rhythm,

repeated phrases,

formulaic descriptions,

stock scenes,

traditional characters,

recognisable story sequences

and

metrical structures.

Thus Achilles can repeatedly be described by a familiar epithet, ships can be introduced through standard phrases, dawn arrives through recognised verbal formulas, and battles, feasts, departures and assemblies follow structures that both singer and audience understand.

The metre itself—dactylic hexameter—acted as part of the memory system.

The singer possessed the story and the language for recreating it, rather than carrying a single immutable script in his head. Parry and Lord’s work on surviving oral traditions showed that a trained singer could reconstruct an enormous epic during performance using this formulaic system.

This produces a very important consequence.

Each performance could preserve the essential story while changing some of its details.

An episode might become longer.

Another could be shortened.

A hero could receive greater prominence.

A description could change.

And details meaningful to one audience could be emphasised more heavily than details important to another.

The story could therefore remain recognisably the same story for centuries without remaining exactly the same text.

⏳ HOW FAR BACK COULD THE TROJAN STORY GO?

This is where matters become particularly interesting.

The poems we possess are usually associated in something close to their recognisable monumental form with the late eighth or early seventh century BCE, although exactly when they first became written texts remains heavily debated.

But the traditions from which they were created are considerably older.

Cambridge’s modern guide to Homer describes the poems as products of songs composed and recomposed over many hundreds of years, potentially drawing on traditions extending much deeper into prehistory. Some scholarship has specifically argued that Greek epic traditions may have been developing from the middle or later Bronze Age.

That creates a possible chronological gap of several centuries between:

whatever historical events originally generated the tradition

and

the written geographical names we eventually inherit.

If the conventional Trojan War date of around the late second millennium BCE were approximately correct, then several hundred years may separate an original conflict from the period in which the surviving poems began crystallising into something resembling our texts.

And during those centuries the story was travelling.

🌍 STORIES TRAVEL — AND GEOGRAPHY CAN TRAVEL WITH THEM

This point is central to our investigation.

An oral epic does not survive in a vacuum.

It survives because people want to hear it.

A singer performs before an audience. That audience knows its own towns, rulers, landscapes, ancestors and political rivalries.

Successful oral storytelling therefore contains an unavoidable process of adaptation.

Modern Homeric scholarship explicitly recognises that the flexibility of oral performance allowed heroic tales to be adapted to their immediate contexts. The Homeric language itself demonstrates this history: it is not the ordinary language of one place or date but a remarkable composite containing predominantly Ionic forms together with older Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot elements and later Attic features.

In other words:

THE LANGUAGE ITSELF HAS A HISTORY OF MOVEMENT AND MODIFICATION.

Why should we automatically assume every geographical label escaped the same process untouched?

Suppose an ancient story originally described a distant king, harbour, island or people whose original name had become meaningless to an audience centuries later.

A performer had several choices.

He could preserve a meaningless archaic name.

He could reinterpret it.

He could associate it with a place his listeners knew.

Or different regional traditions could gradually absorb their own places and heroes into the greater Trojan story.

We cannot prove that this happened to every disputed Homeric town.

But critically:

WE KNOW THE ORAL SYSTEM WAS CAPABLE OF DOING IT.

That alone means geographical names cannot be treated with the same evidential weight as physical descriptions.

🏛️ COULD LOCAL TOWNS HAVE BEEN ADDED TO PLEASE LOCAL AUDIENCES?

Yes—it is a genuine possibility, although it must be treated as a hypothesis rather than assumed.

There were even disputes in antiquity and later scholarship concerning possible Athenian additions to Homer. Passages involving Athens and Salamis in the Catalogue of Ships have attracted particularly long-running arguments about interpolation and political influence. Modern scholarship does not simply agree that these lines were inserted, but the fact that such passages remain controversial demonstrates that alteration of local geographical material is not some outrageous modern suggestion.

And there was an obvious incentive.

Imagine performing this great heroic story before an audience in a particular Greek city.

Which version is likely to receive the better reception?

One saying:

“Your people played no part in the greatest war in heroic history.”

Or one announcing:

“Your ancestors were there too.”

The Catalogue of Ships is especially interesting in this respect because it gives an extraordinary roll-call of communities incorporated into the expedition.

That does not prove the Catalogue was fabricated.

But it means we should recognise its social function.

The Trojan story eventually became a shared heroic past through which numerous Greek communities could locate themselves inside history.

That creates exactly the circumstances in which local geographical incorporation becomes plausible.

💰 WAS THERE A COMMERCIAL MOTIVE?

Not initially in the modern sense of an author writing a book and hoping to sell thousands of copies.

For much of the poem’s early existence, the product being consumed was the:

PERFORMANCE.

Bards performed at elite households, feasts and public occasions. Later professional rhapsodes performed Homeric poetry competitively at major festivals such as the Panathenaia, where contests and prizes existed. For most people in Archaic and Classical Greece, Homer would originally have been encountered through performance rather than privately reading a book.

So although we should avoid imagining a Bronze Age publishing company selling copies of the Iliad, there was still an economic reality.

A successful performer needed:

patronage,

invitations,

prestige,

prizes

and above all:

AN AUDIENCE THAT WANTED TO HEAR HIS VERSION.

That provides exactly the same commercial pressure that exists in entertainment today.

Tell people a story that relates to them, and they are more likely to listen.

Eventually the oral tradition increasingly became textual. The poems became books, educational texts and cultural possessions, while regulated festival performances also helped constrain what had previously been a much more fluid tradition. Yet even by the second century BCE, textual variation had not disappeared completely.

So the surviving text is better imagined not as a photograph taken at one moment in history, but as the final surviving frame of a film that had already been running for centuries.

📜 FROM BARD TO “HOMER”

There is another uncomfortable problem.

We do not actually know who Homer was.

Ancient cities competed to claim him as their own, particularly communities in Ionia such as Smyrna and Chios. Even the association of the name “Homer” with the Iliad and Odyssey developed within the later tradition.

Modern scholarship continues to debate whether:

one extraordinary poet monumentalised each epic,

different poets created the Iliad and Odyssey,

the poems were dictated by oral singers,

or their written forms emerged progressively from a much wider performance tradition.

What is considerably less controversial is that the tradition preceding the surviving text was oral.

That fact changes how geographical evidence should be handled.

🧭 NAMES ARE NOT THE SAME AS GEOGRAPHY

This is why, throughout this investigation, we will not begin by saying:

“Homer mentions a place later identified as being in Greece, therefore the story happened in Greece.”

That is circular reasoning.

A place-name can be:

preserved,

translated,

reapplied,

updated,

misunderstood

incorporated during centuries of oral retelling.

A river behaving in a particular way cannot.

A tide cannot.

A seventeen-day voyage cannot.

The position of a star cannot.

A prevailing wind cannot.

The length of winter darkness cannot.

The ecology of a marsh cannot.

A mountain visible after a stated number of sailing days cannot.

Those are the clues that deserve greater weight.

So our methodology deliberately separates:

🏛️ CULTURAL LABELS

from

🌍 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The names remain important.

But they do not get to prove themselves.

🔍 THE STORY MAY BE OLDER THAN ITS MAP

And this leads directly to the central problem of the Odyssey.

It is entirely possible that the written poem contains two different chronological layers of information:

an ancient inherited story,

and

a later geographical vocabulary familiar to the audiences who eventually preserved and recorded it.

If so, conflicts between Homer’s names and Homer’s physical descriptions become extremely important.

Which should we trust?

The town name that could have travelled through centuries of human storytelling?

Or the description of:

🌊 the sea,

🌫️ the climate,

⭐ the stars,

🧭 the sailing direction,

⏳ the voyage duration,

🌲 the vegetation,

🏔️ the landscape

and

👥 the people?

Our investigation gives priority to the latter.

Because oral tradition can move a name.

IT CANNOT MOVE THE NORTH STAR.

And once that distinction is understood, the Odyssey stops being merely one of the world’s greatest stories.

It becomes something else:

🧭 A POTENTIALLY TESTABLE PREHISTORIC GEOGRAPHICAL RECORD.

That is where our investigation begins.

**Our examination of the first two books of Homer’s Iliad has already produced an unexpected result.**

After removing traditional place-name assumptions and scoring only evidence that actually discriminates between the competing geographical models, the result currently stands at:

🌊 NORTHERN / LONG-DISTANCE MODEL: 13

☀️ LOCAL GREEK–ANATOLIAN MODEL: 0

But we may have overlooked an even more powerful test.

Because Homer didn’t only leave us the story of the war.

He also left us:

🧭 THE JOURNEY HOME.

And that creates a very awkward question for the traditional identification of Troy.

🚢 THE JOURNEY SHOULD BE SIMPLE

The conventional interpretation tells us:

🏛️ Troy = Hisarlık in north-western Turkey

and

🏠 Odysseus’ home = Ithaca in western Greece.

So when Troy falls, Odysseus has a straightforward objective:

TROY ➡️ ITHACA

Nothing mysterious about that.

The conventional sea distance is approximately:

🌊 560 NAUTICAL MILES

roughly 645 statute miles

Now compare that with experimental ancient Mediterranean sailing.

The reconstructed fourth-century BC merchant vessel Kyrenia II demonstrated cruising speeds around 3–4 knots, sometimes considerably faster. On its experimental voyage from Piraeus to Cyprus it covered almost 600 nautical miles despite stops, tests and variable conditions.

At that sort of speed, a direct 560-mile voyage is not a journey measured in years.

It is measured in:

📅 DAYS.

Allow for poor winds, overnight stops, provisioning and Bronze Age caution and perhaps we are looking at roughly:

ONE TO TWO WEEKS

under reasonably favourable circumstances.

And yet Homer gives us:

⏳ TEN YEARS.

Immediately people will say:

“But Odysseus didn’t spend ten years sailing!”

Correct.

And that distinction actually makes the geographical problem more interesting.

⏳ THE TEN YEARS WERE NOT TEN YEARS OF CONTINUOUS SAILING

Odysseus gets delayed.

He is shipwrecked.

He loses companions.

He encounters hostile populations.

He becomes stranded.

He spends years unable to get home.

So it would be scientifically wrong to calculate:

ship speed × ten years = distance from Troy.

We aren’t doing that.

The real question is much more basic:

How does a man attempting a voyage whose conventional start and finish are only about a week’s sailing apart become so geographically displaced that returning home consumes ten years?

That is the problem.

📖 HOMER TELLS US FROM THE FIRST LINES THAT THIS IS A GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNEY

The Odyssey opens by describing Odysseus as the man who:

“wandered full many ways”

after he had destroyed Troy.

Homer says:

“Many were the men whose cities he saw”

and tells us that he suffered repeatedly:

“upon the sea.”

This isn’t simply a story about somebody stuck around the corner.

It is explicitly a story about:

🌍 travelling through different lands

👥 encountering different peoples

🌊 crossing seas

🌪️ experiencing extreme maritime conditions

and

🧭 struggling to recover the route home.

🚨 EVEN MORE IMPORTANTLY — EVERYONE ELSE HAS ALREADY GONE HOME

Book 1 gives us another striking statement.

Homer says that the other surviving Achaeans were:

“at home, safe from both war and sea.”

Odysseus alone remained unable to complete his return.

This is extremely important.

The war is finished.

The surviving coalition disperses.

The men undertake their return journeys from Troy.

That means the Odyssey isn’t some unrelated maritime fantasy.

It is the geographical sequel to the Trojan War.

We therefore have another independent dataset with which to test the location of Troy.

🧭 AND HOMER ACTUALLY GIVES US NAVIGATION INSTRUCTIONS

This is where things become particularly interesting.

When Odysseus finally leaves Calypso, Homer doesn’t simply say:

“He sailed away.”

He tells us how he navigated.

Odysseus watches:

⭐ the Pleiades

⭐ Boötes

⭐ Orion

⭐ the Great Bear.

And Calypso instructs him to keep the Bear:

ON HIS LEFT

while sailing.

That is potentially geographical evidence.

Because now we have:

⭐ CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

🧭 DIRECTION

🌊 OPEN-SEA TRAVEL

⏳ AND SAILING DURATION.

That can potentially be tested mathematically.

🚢 THEN HOMER GIVES US THE NUMBER: SEVENTEEN DAYS

Odysseus sails continuously enough for Homer to state:

“For seventeen days then he sailed over the sea”

and on the eighteenth he finally sees the mountains of the Phaeacians.

Stop there.

The entire conventional Troy-to-Ithaca journey could potentially be completed in something around a week or somewhat longer under reasonable sailing conditions.

Yet one single later leg of Odysseus’ wandering lasts:

🌊 17 DAYS AT SEA

before land appears.

That doesn’t automatically prove the Atlantic.

But scientifically it demands investigation.

Where had he travelled?

How far away from Ithaca had he become?

What heading does keeping the Great Bear on the left imply?

What distance can a Bronze Age sailing vessel cover in seventeen days?

And does the conventional Mediterranean reconstruction actually satisfy those constraints?

These are measurable questions.

🌫️ THEN WE REACH THE CIMMERIANS

And the environment becomes even stranger.

Odysseus reaches the land of the Cimmerians.

Homer describes it as:

“wrapped in mist and cloud.”

Then he says:

“Never does the bright sun look down on them”

and describes oppressive darkness hanging over the inhabitants.

Again, we must be careful.

This could be mythological geography.

It could represent Homer’s conception of the edge of the world.

We cannot simply announce:

Cimmerians = Britain.

But scientifically we are entitled to ask:

🌞 Is this a normal Mediterranean environmental description?

Or is:

🌫️ persistent mist

☁️ cloud

🌑 darkness

and

🌊 the remote Ocean

more naturally compatible with the traditions of higher-latitude northern waters?

That becomes another test.

🌊 HOMER EVEN TAKES US TO “OCEANUS”

Immediately before reaching the Cimmerians, Homer says Odysseus’ vessel reaches:

“deep-flowing Oceanus, that bounds the Earth.”

This is extremely significant conceptually.

The poem’s geography has now expanded far beyond an ordinary little voyage between Turkey and western Greece.

We are being taken to what Homer’s tradition regards as the outer ocean.

Whether Oceanus represents a literal Atlantic geography, mythical world-ocean, or a mixture of inherited geographical memory and mythology is precisely what needs testing.

But simply squeezing every episode into the Mediterranean because we have already decided Troy belongs there is not evidence.

It is circular reasoning.

🌪️ THE WEATHER NEEDS TESTING TOO

Throughout the Odyssey, maritime conditions aren’t background decoration.

They drive the story.

Odysseus encounters:

🌊 enormous seas

🌬️ persistent winds

⛈️ destructive storms

🌫️ mist and poor visibility

🏝️ unfamiliar coasts

and repeated difficulty determining his position.

Mediterranean storms can unquestionably be severe.

So:

storm = Atlantic

is not acceptable science.

But just as with our Iliad investigation, the correct question is:

Which maritime environment produces the complete collection of conditions more naturally and more frequently?

The Mediterranean?

Or the Atlantic/North Sea world?

🗺️ THE PEOPLE ARE JUST AS IMPORTANT AS THE WEATHER

The journey takes Odysseus through populations whose cultures and lifestyles differ radically.

We meet:

👥 Cimmerians

👥 Phaeacians

👥 Cyclopes

👥 Laestrygonians

and numerous other populations and communities.

Some may be mythical.

Some may preserve distorted memories of real peoples.

Some may combine both.

But we should not begin by assigning them to Mediterranean locations simply because later scholars did so.

Instead we should record:

🏠 housing

⛵ boat technology

🌾 agriculture

🐄 animals

🍖 diet

👕 clothing

🗣️ language

🌲 vegetation

🌦️ climate

🏔️ geography

and then ask:

WHERE DOES THAT COMPLETE PACKAGE FIT BEST?

⚠️ THIS IS THE SAME MISTAKE WE FOUND WITH THE ILIAD

Traditional scholarship frequently begins with:

Troy = Hisarlık

therefore:

Achaeans = Greece

therefore:

the war must be Mediterranean

therefore:

the Odyssey must largely be Mediterranean

and then attempts to find Mediterranean locations resembling Homer’s descriptions.

That reverses the scientific process.

The correct sequence should be:

1️⃣ Read Homer.

2️⃣ Extract the physical evidence.

3️⃣ Reconstruct the journey.

4️⃣ Calculate directions and sailing distances.

5️⃣ Compare climates and environments.

6️⃣ Compare populations and cultures.

7️⃣ THEN identify the most probable geography.

Not the other way around.

🔬 AND THIS TIME WE CAN ACTUALLY DO THE MATHEMATICS

The Iliad gave us powerful clues such as:

🌍 “far from home”

🌊 mountains and sea separating populations

🚢 1,186 ships

🗣️ different languages

🌍 allies “from afar”

👱 repeated xanthos individuals

🌧️ winter seas

🌿 wet meadow and marsh landscapes.

But the Odyssey potentially gives us something even stronger.

It gives us:

⏱️ TIME

🧭 DIRECTION

⭐ NAVIGATION

🌊 DISTANCE

🌬️ WEATHER

🌍 ENVIRONMENT.

Those are quantifiable.

🚨 THE CENTRAL PROBLEM

Strip away all the monsters and gods for a moment.

The basic story says:

Odysseus leaves Troy.

He intends to sail home.

Home is Ithaca.

Other Achaeans successfully make their own returns.

Odysseus becomes displaced through a vast maritime world.

He encounters numerous foreign peoples and environments.

He reaches extraordinarily remote locations.

One later sailing leg alone lasts seventeen days.

His complete return takes ten years.

And the conventional interpretation asks us to place the beginning and end of that extraordinary adventure only about:

560 NAUTICAL MILES APART.

That doesn’t prove the traditional map is wrong.

But scientifically:

IT IS A PROBLEM THAT DEMANDS AN EXPLANATION.

🧪 SO WE ARE GOING TO TEST THE ODYSSEY TOO

After our detailed examination of the 24 books of the Iliad, we will now have a second investigation:

📚 ALL 24 BOOKS OF THE ODYSSEY

And we will use exactly the same rules.

No points for traditional names.

No location accepted because “experts agree”.

No northern point merely because something also happens in Britain.

No Mediterranean point merely because something can happen in Greece.

If both environments fit:

0–0

If one environment is substantially more probable:

it scores.

And where Homer gives us distances, directions and sailing durations:

WE DO THE MATHS.

🔥 THIS MAY BECOME THE BIGGER PROBLEM

After two books of the Iliad our score currently stands at:

🌊 NORTH / LONG-DISTANCE: 13

☀️ LOCAL AEGEAN: 0

Twenty-two Iliad books remain.

But after that we now have another twenty-four books containing the actual journey home.

That means this investigation is no longer simply:

“Where was Troy?”

The bigger question has become:

🧭 DOES HOMER’S ENTIRE GEOGRAPHICAL WORLD FIT INSIDE THE MAP WE HAVE BEEN GIVEN?

Because if Troy really was Hisarlık and Ithaca really was Odysseus’ destination, then a journey whose conventional endpoints are roughly a week or two of ordinary ancient sailing apart somehow generated one of the greatest tales of geographical wandering ever written.

Perhaps mythology explains everything.

Perhaps the Mediterranean really does reproduce Homer’s journey.

Perhaps the traditional geography eventually wins.

But those are hypotheses.

They now need testing.

And if the sailing directions, durations, climates, peoples and landscapes repeatedly point outside the Mediterranean, then the traditional identification of this as an obviously local Greek–Anatolian conflict becomes increasingly difficult to defend scientifically.

🌊 THE ILIAD GIVES US THE WAR.

🧭 THE ODYSSEY MAY GIVE US THE MAP.

And that may prove to be the most important test of them all. 🔍🌍⚔️

PODCAST

Author’s Biography

Robert John Langdon, a polymathic luminary, emerges as a writer, historian, and eminent specialist in LiDAR Landscape Archaeology.

His intellectual voyage has been interwoven with stints as an astute scrutineer in government and grand corporate bastions, a tapestry spanning British Telecommunications, Cable and Wireless, British Gas, and the esteemed University of London.

A decade hence, Robert’s transition into retirement unfurled a chapter of insatiable curiosity. This phase saw him immerse himself in Politics, Archaeology, Philosophy, and the enigmatic realm of Quantum Mechanics. His academic odyssey traversed the venerable corridors of knowledge hubs such as the Museum of London, University College London, Birkbeck College, The City Literature Institute, and Chichester University.

In the symphony of his life, Robert is a custodian of three progeny and a pair of cherished grandchildren. His sanctuary lies ensconced in the embrace of West Wales, where he inhabits an isolated cottage, its windows framing a vista of the boundless sea – a retreat from the scrutinising gaze of Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs, an amiable clandestinity in the lap of nature.

Exploring Prehistoric Britain: A Journey Through Time

My blog delves into the fascinating mysteries of prehistoric Britain, challenging conventional narratives and offering fresh perspectives grounded in cutting-edge research, particularly LiDAR technology. I invite you to explore some key areas of my research. For example, the Wansdyke, often cited as a defensive structure, is re-examined in light of new evidence. I’ve presented my findings in my blog post Wansdyke: A British Frontier Wall – ‘Debunked’, and a Wansdyke LiDAR Flyover video further visualises my conclusions.

My work also often challenges established archaeological dogma. I argue that many sites, such as Hambledon Hill, commonly identified as Iron Age hillforts, are not what they seem. My posts Lidar Investigation Hambledon Hill – NOT an ‘Iron Age Fort’ and Unmasking the “Iron Age Hillfort” Myth explore these ideas in detail and offer an alternative view. Similarly, sites like Cissbury Ring and White Sheet Camp receive re-evaluations based on LiDAR analysis in my posts “Lidar Investigation Cissbury Ring through time” and “Lidar Investigation White Sheet Camp,“ revealing fascinating insights into their true purpose. I have also examined South Cadbury Castle, often linked to the mythical Camelot56.

My research also extends to ancient water management, including the role of canals and other linear earthworks. I have discussed the true origins of Car Dyke in multiple posts, including Car Dyke – ABC News Podcast and Lidar Investigation Car Dyke – North Section, which suggest a Mesolithic origin 2357. I also explore the misidentification of Roman aqueducts, as seen in my posts on the Great Chesters (Roman) Aqueduct. My research has also been greatly informed by my post-glacial flooding hypothesis, which has helped explain landscape transformations over time. I have discussed this hypothesis in several posts, including AI now supports my Post-Glacial Flooding Hypothesis and Exploring Britain’s Flooded Past: A Personal Journey

Finally, my blog also investigates prehistoric burial practices, as seen in Prehistoric Burial Practices of Britain and explores the mystery of Pillow Mounds, often mistaken for medieval rabbit warrens, but with a potential link to Bronze Age cremation in my posts: Pillow Mounds: A Bronze Age Legacy of Cremation? and The Mystery of Pillow Mounds: Are They Really Medieval Rabbit Warrens?. My research also includes astronomical insights into ancient sites, for example, in Rediscovering the Winter Solstice: The Original Winter Festival. I also review new information about the construction of Stonehenge in The Stonehenge Enigma.

Other Blogs

2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review

8000-year-old Cro-Magnon skull

Vikings, Doggerland, and the Last Survivors of Europe’s Lost Waterworld

Plato Was Right: The Archaeological Evidence the Academics Never Expected

Posted on June 7, 2026 by admin

Introduction

For more than a century, archaeology has treated Plato’s Atlantis as little more than an allegory. Students are taught that Atlantis was a philosophical invention. A morality tale. A fictional society created to demonstrate the dangers of arrogance and imperial ambition. (Plato’s Atlantis)

The problem with this explanation is simple.

Plato’s story contains an extraordinary number of specific claims.

He described a powerful maritime civilisation existing around 9,000 years before Solon. He placed it beyond the Pillars of Hercules in a sea that bears its name to this day – the Atlantic Ocean. He claimed it possessed fleets capable of travelling vast distances, maintained contact with distant lands, and ultimately disappeared beneath the sea following catastrophic flooding.

Most importantly, Plato claimed the survivors of this lost civilisation seeded both Egypt and Greece.

For generations, academics dismissed the entire account as fiction.

The archaeology now suggests they may have been wrong.

1. Atlantis and the Atlantic

One of the most overlooked aspects of Plato’s account is geography.

Atlantis was not described as a Mediterranean civilisation.

It lay beyond the Pillars of Hercules in the Atlantic Ocean.

Today, the ocean itself still carries the name.

Whether the ocean was named after Atlantis or Atlantis after the ocean is ultimately irrelevant. What matters is that Plato was clearly describing a civilisation connected to the Atlantic world rather than the eastern Mediterranean.

That distinction becomes critically important when we consider what archaeology has discovered during the last few decades.

2. The Lost World Beneath the North Sea

When Plato wrote his account, nobody knew that an enormous inhabited landscape once existed beneath the North Sea.

Today, we call it Doggerland.

During the Late Ice Age, Britain was connected to Europe by a vast plain crossed by rivers, lakes, forests and wetlands. This was not a small island. It was an entire country-sized landscape supporting human populations for thousands of years.

Then the climate changed.

The ice sheets melted.

Sea levels rose.

The land disappeared beneath the waves.

For centuries, such a drowned world would have been dismissed as fantasy.

Today, it is accepted in archaeology.

The existence of Doggerland alone demonstrates that Plato’s central premise – that large inhabited lands were lost beneath the sea – was not fantasy at all.

3. The Great Flooding Event

Around 6200 BCE the Storegga tsunami and associated post-glacial flooding transformed the landscapes of north-west Europe.

Although flooding was not a single event, the combined effects of sea-level rise, coastal erosion and catastrophic inundation dramatically reduced the habitable land available to prehistoric populations.

The significance of this cannot be overstated.

An entire world disappeared.

Rivers vanished.

Coastlines moved.

Settlements were destroyed.

Migration became inevitable.

If a sophisticated maritime culture existed within Doggerland, it would have faced a simple choice:

Adapt, relocate or perish.

4. Bouldnor Cliff Changes Everything

The discovery at Bouldnor Cliff is one of the most important archaeological finds ever made in Britain.

Dating to the seventh millennium BC, the site revealed evidence of advanced woodworking, boat use and long-distance connections.

Most remarkably, researchers recovered evidence of einkorn wheat.

This is not a trivial discovery.

Einkorn was not adopted in Britain for approximately another 3,000 years.

The presence of einkorn demonstrates contact with regions where the crop was already known and cultivated.

In other words, maritime connections already existed between Britain and distant communities long before conventional history would have us believe.

This single discovery destroys the notion that Mesolithic Britain was isolated from the wider world.

5. Maritime Routes Create Ports

There is another implication that is rarely discussed.

Boats travelling between Britain and the Near East do not operate by magic.

They require food.

Fresh water.

Repairs.

Shelter.

Replacement crews.

Trade goods.

Every historical maritime network in history produced ports and anchorages.

The Phoenicians did it.

The Greeks did it.

The Romans did it.

The Vikings did it.

The Elizabethans did it.

There is no reason to imagine prehistoric sailors behaved differently.

Repeated voyages between the Atlantic and Anatolia would naturally create stopping points along the coasts of Iberia, southern France, Italy, Greece, and Egypt.

Over generations, these temporary anchorages would evolve into permanent trading communities.

Sailors would settle.

Families would form.

Local populations would mix.

Knowledge would spread.

This is how maritime civilisations have always operated.

6. Plato’s Most Important Claim

Plato did not merely describe a lost civilisation.

He claimed that the survivors seeded both Egypt and Greece.

This is an astonishingly specific statement.

It creates a testable archaeological prediction.

If the account preserves genuine historical memory, then traces of unusual founder populations should appear in both Egypt and Greece during the period following the destruction of the Atlantic homeland.

Remarkably, that is exactly what the archaeology appears to reveal.

7. Egypt: The First Foundation

The Egyptian evidence is striking.

The chronology reveals continuity rather than replacement.

Egypt	Greece
Qarunian (7570–6200 BC)	Aceramic Neolithic
Transitional Phase (6200–5550 BC)	Early Neolithic
Early Faiyumian (5550–4650 BC)	Nea Nikomedeia
Merimde (c.5000–4300 BC)	Proto-Sesklo / Sesklo
Tasian (c.4500 BC onwards)	Prodromos / Dimini

The populations associated with Merimde and the Tasian culture have been described as:

Long-headed.
Robust.
Physically distinct from many later Egyptians.
Generally taller than later predynastic populations.

Excavation reports also recorded individuals with sandy, ginger and even golden hair, leading archaeologists to suggest the existence of a fair strain within the population.

These are not modern interpretations.

They are observations recorded by the excavators themselves.

8. Greece: The Second Foundation

The Greek evidence follows a remarkably similar pattern.

Early Neolithic populations appear on a timeline virtually identical to that of Egypt.

Sites such as Nea Nikomedeia, Sesklo and Prodromos represent some of the earliest organised communities in Europe.

Anthropological studies repeatedly describe Thessalian populations as predominantly long-headed.

At Prodromos, archaeologists discovered a remarkable cache of eleven human skulls deliberately placed beneath a house floor.

Dedicated anthropological investigations were conducted into these populations, exactly as occurred in Egypt.

The similarities are difficult to ignore.

Egypt	Greece
Merimde long-headed	Thessalian populations described as long-headed
Tasian long-headed	Prodromos skull assemblage
Robust populations	Founder populations under anthropological study
Taller than later Egyptians	Stature evidence incomplete
Fair-haired individuals	Evidence currently absent
Continuity from earlier populations	Continuity from Early Neolithic founder settlements

9. The Chronology Fits

When the chronology is compared directly, the pattern becomes even more remarkable.

Date	North Sea / Atlantis Model	Greece
8000–7000 BC	Doggerland extensive	Mesolithic hunter-gatherers
7000–6500 BC	Population displacement possible	Earliest Neolithic begins
6500–6000 BC	Lowland reductions continuing	Thessaly settlements expanding
6200–5500 BC	Transitional phase	Sesklo emerging
5500–5000 BC	Doggerland fragmented	Major Sesklo centre
5000–4500 BC	Survivor period	Dimini and advanced settlements
4500–4000 BC	Megalithic Structures End	Increasing Aegean complexity
3500–3000 BC	Farmers take over Britain	Cycladic maritime culture

The sequence is not proof.

But it is exactly the pattern we would expect if populations displaced from the Atlantic world contributed to later civilisations.

10. The Allegory Has a Problem

The academic explanation has always been simple.

Atlantis was fictional.

The difficulty is that fictional stories are not supposed to generate accurate archaeological predictions.

Plato described:

A maritime civilisation.
An Atlantic homeland.
Catastrophic flooding.
A date close to the end of the Ice Age.
Survivors.
Egypt.
Greece.

Archaeology has now confirmed:

The drowned landscape.
The flooding.
The maritime networks.
Long-distance contacts.
Founder populations in Egypt.
Founder populations in Greece.

Nobody is claiming that every detail of Plato’s account has been proven.

What can no longer be maintained is the lazy assumption that the story was merely an allegory.

Two thousand four hundred years ago, Plato described a lost maritime world destroyed by rising seas whose survivors helped shape the civilisations that followed.

Today, archaeology is beginning to uncover evidence that such a world may have existed.

The greatest irony of all may be that the man historians dismissed as a storyteller was closer to the truth than the experts who spent a century insisting he was wrong.

🌊 19 Reasons Why Doggerland Was Atlantis 🌊

The Atlantis Mystery Archaeology Doesn’t Want to Solve

For over 2,300 years, people have searched for Atlantis.

They have looked in the Mediterranean, the Atlantic Ocean, Antarctica, the Caribbean, Spain, Morocco, the Azores, and even Indonesia.

Yet there is a problem.

None of these proposed locations matches more than a handful of Plato’s descriptions.

Most require selective reading, reinterpretation, or outright dismissal of key details.

Doggerland is different.

Lying beneath the North Sea between Britain and Europe, Doggerland was a real landscape. It existed. It flooded. It supported human populations. And remarkably, when Plato’s account is compared to measurable evidence, the number of correspondences becomes difficult to ignore.

Here are 19 reasons why Doggerland remains the strongest candidate for Atlantis ever identified.

1️⃣ A Large Island Beyond the Mediterranean

Plato describes a vast landmass beyond the familiar world of the Mediterranean.

Doggerland once connected Britain to continental Europe and formed one of the largest habitable landscapes in north-west Europe before it disappeared beneath the sea.

2️⃣ A Vast Central Plain

Plato gives dimensions of approximately 2,000 by 3,000 stadia.

When converted into modern measurements, this equates to roughly 370 by 550 kilometres.

The reconstructed Doggerland plateau measures approximately 375 by 560 kilometres.

Few Atlantis candidates come anywhere close.

3️⃣ Mountains to the North

Plato describes mountains surrounding the northern edge of the plain.

Scotland, Norway and Scandinavia form exactly such a northern mountainous boundary around the North Sea basin.

4️⃣ A Landscape Dominated by Water

Atlantis was described as a landscape of rivers, channels and waterways.

Doggerland was criss-crossed by major river systems, wetlands, lakes, estuaries and palaeochannels now mapped beneath the North Sea.

5️⃣ A Maritime Civilisation

Plato repeatedly emphasises ships and seafaring.

The Atlantic façade and North Sea region contain overwhelming evidence for water-based movement, trade and communication.

6️⃣ Large-Scale Hydraulic Engineering

Plato describes canals and water management on a huge scale.

Britain and north-west Europe preserve extensive dykes, canals, causewayed enclosures and engineered earthworks whose original purposes remain debated.

7️⃣ Concentric Rings of Land and Water

One of Atlantis’s most famous features.

Concentric enclosures, ring monuments and circular hydraulic structures occur throughout Atlantic Europe.

8️⃣ A Fertile Plain

Plato describes a rich agricultural landscape.

Pollen records, peat deposits and sediment analysis reveal that Doggerland supported extensive woodland, grassland and productive river valleys.

9️⃣ Marshes and Wetlands

Atlantis was rich in freshwater.

Geological reconstruction consistently shows Doggerland as a landscape dominated by lakes, marshes, rivers and elevated groundwater systems.

🔟 Elephants

Critics often dismiss this detail.

Yet elephant remains are not only known from Europe—they are known from Britain.

Elephant, mammoth and hippopotamus remains have all been recovered from Britain and the North Sea basin.

1️⃣1️⃣ Advanced Engineering

Plato describes a highly organised civilisation.

The megalithic monuments of north-west Europe required surveying, transport, planning and engineering on a remarkable scale.

1️⃣2️⃣ Large Fleets

Atlantis supposedly maintained a fleet of around 1,200 ships.

Whether the exact number is correct is irrelevant.

Any maritime civilisation operating at this scale would require sophisticated navigation and environmental prediction.

1️⃣3️⃣ Environmental Monitoring Systems

This is where Stonehenge becomes important.

Stonehenge Phase 1 appears to function as a predictive lunar and tidal system operating within a water-dominated landscape.

Such infrastructure would be essential to a maritime culture.

1️⃣4️⃣ Progressive Flooding

Plato does not describe Atlantis disappearing overnight.

He describes destruction through flooding.

Doggerland vanished over thousands of years through repeated marine transgressions and rising sea levels.

1️⃣5️⃣ The Loss of the Homeland

Eventually, only fragments remained.

Between approximately 5200 and 4200 BCE the final Doggerland archipelago disappeared beneath the North Sea.

1️⃣6️⃣ Population Dispersal

What happens when a homeland disappears?

People move.

The concentration of megalithic monuments across Britain, Ireland, Brittany, Denmark, and the Low Countries is consistent with populations relocating along the margins of the former basin.

1️⃣7️⃣ Preservation of Memory

Civilisations remember disasters.

Stonehenge Phase 2 may represent the monumentalisation of that memory, transforming an earlier functional system into a permanent stone memorial.

1️⃣8️⃣ Physical Links to the Lost Land

Memory is often preserved through objects.

The Altar Stone may provide a physical connection between Stonehenge and the broader northern landscape associated with Doggerland.

1️⃣9️⃣ A Great Civilisation Remembered

Plato claimed Atlantis survived as a story long after the land itself disappeared.

If a maritime culture occupied Doggerland and its destruction became embedded within oral tradition, Plato’s account may preserve the final echo of a real prehistoric catastrophe.

The Real Question

Taken individually, none of these points proves the existence of Atlantis.

But that is not the test.

The test is whether any other Atlantis candidate matches so many independent categories simultaneously.

✅ Geography

✅ Dimensions

✅ Chronology

✅ Hydrology

✅ Environmental reconstruction

✅ Flooding history

✅ Maritime capability

✅ Engineering requirements

✅ Monument distribution

✅ Cultural memory

Most Atlantis theories match one or two features.

Doggerland matches nearly all of them.

The question is no longer:

“Could Plato have described a flooded landscape?”

The evidence suggests he probably did.

The real question is:

What other known landscape matches Plato’s description better than Doggerland?

So far, nobody has produced one.

PODCAST

Author’s Biography

Robert John Langdon, a polymathic luminary, emerges as a writer, historian, and eminent specialist in LiDAR Landscape Archaeology.

Exploring Prehistoric Britain: A Journey Through Time

Other Blogs

2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review

8000-year-old Cro-Magnon skull

Vikings, Doggerland, and the Last Survivors of Europe’s Lost Waterworld

South Cadbury Castle – Camelot

Posted on April 1, 2026 by admin

Introduction

In the traditional archaeological interpretation, Cadbury Castle represents a long-lived settlement that developed gradually over several millennia. The earliest evidence of activity dates to the Neolithic period, where pits and postholes associated with pottery and flint finds suggest a small, unenclosed agricultural community. Radiocarbon dating places this early occupation around 3500–3300 BC, indicating that the hill was already being utilised long before the construction of its later defences.(South Cadbury Castle – Camelot)

The site continued to be occupied into the Bronze Age, where evidence of ovens and metalworking activity points to an increasingly organised settlement. By the Iron Age, Cadbury Castle had developed into a substantial fortified enclosure. Around 300 BC, a stone-built enclosure with timber reinforcements was constructed, later expanded into a complex hillfort with multiple ramparts and elaborate defensive systems. Excavations have revealed both roundhouses and rectangular structures, alongside evidence of industrial activity and possible ritual features, suggesting a permanent and socially complex community—often described as “oppidum-like” in character.

South Cadbury Castle - Camelot — South Cadbury Castle – Camelot

During the 1st century BC and into the early Roman period, the defences were further strengthened. Archaeological evidence indicates that the site may have been violently attacked during the Roman conquest of Britain, around AD 43, with signs of burning and destruction uncovered at key प्रवेश points. Following this, the Romans appear to have reused the hilltop, possibly establishing a military presence and later constructing a temple during the 3rd or 4th century AD.

After the end of Roman administration, Cadbury Castle was reoccupied in the post-Roman period, between approximately AD 470 and 580. Excavations led by Leslie Alcock revealed a large timber “Great Hall,” interpreted within the traditional framework as the residence of a high-status Brittonic ruler. The discovery of imported Mediterranean pottery from this phase suggests long-distance trade connections and reinforces the idea of the site as a regional power centre. It is this phase of occupation that has led to long-standing associations with the legendary Camelot of King Arthur.

The site saw later reuse in the early medieval period, including the establishment of a temporary Saxon mint in the 11th century. Across its long history, Cadbury Castle is therefore understood, in conventional terms, as a multi-period fortified settlement—evolving from a Neolithic farming site into a major Iron Age stronghold, later adapted by Roman and post-Roman communities, and ultimately woven into both historical and legendary narratives.

The Problem with the Traditional Interpretation

The conventional explanation of Cadbury Castle presents a familiar story: a hilltop settlement that gradually evolves from a Neolithic farm into a Bronze Age community, then into an Iron Age hillfort, later reused by Romans and post-Roman elites.

It sounds neat. It reads well. But when examined critically, it raises more problems than it solves.

The core issue is methodological.

The site is treated as a continuous “occupation sequence,” yet the evidence presented is not continuous—it is fragmentary, intermittent, and separated by significant spans of time. A pit here, a posthole there, a later rampart above it—all are grouped together and interpreted as a single evolving settlement. In reality, what is being described is not continuity, but repeated reuse of a prominent landscape feature over thousands of years.

This is a fundamental distinction.

Finding Neolithic pits does not prove a Neolithic settlement in the sense implied. It proves activity. The same applies to Bronze Age ovens, Iron Age ramparts, or post-Roman halls. Each represents a moment in time, not necessarily a continuous tradition of occupation.

Archaeology, however, routinely compresses these separate events into a single narrative—effectively averaging the past into a story that feels coherent but is not supported as a continuous process.

Elevation and Function — The Missing Variable

What is consistently overlooked in the traditional model is the most obvious physical characteristic of Cadbury Castle:

Its elevation.

At approximately 153 metres above sea level, the site sits well above the surrounding lowlands, particularly the Somerset Levels to the north. In the conventional interpretation, this is explained purely in terms of defence—height equals visibility, therefore height equals protection.

But this assumption is never tested.

It is simply inherited.

If we step back and apply a physical framework rather than a cultural one, a different question emerges:

Why are the earliest activities consistently located on elevated ground?

This is not unique to Cadbury. Across Britain, early prehistoric activity frequently appears at higher elevations, with later activity progressively occupying lower ground. This pattern is measurable, repeatable, and not dependent on interpretation.

The simplest explanation is not a defence.

It is an environment.

As demonstrated in the broader hydrological model of post-glacial Britain, early Holocene landscapes were characterised by significantly higher groundwater levels and expanded river systems. In such a system, low-lying areas—such as the Somerset Levels—would not have been stable, dry land in the way they are today. They would have been wetlands, floodplains, or standing water environments for extended periods.

Under these conditions, elevated sites like Cadbury Hill are not “defensive choices.”

They are the only viable ground.

Reframing the “Hillfort”

Once elevation is understood as an environmental constraint rather than a defensive preference, the entire interpretation of the site shifts.

The term “hillfort” becomes problematic.

It assumes:

conflict
territorial defence
permanent settlement

Yet none of these are directly proven by the physical evidence alone.

The ramparts, for example, are interpreted as defensive structures—but this is an assumption based on form, not function. Earthworks can serve multiple purposes: hydraulic control, stock management, boundary demarcation, or even phased landscape modification.

At Cadbury, the presence of multiple ramparts is often cited as evidence of increasing conflict. But an alternative explanation is equally plausible: staged construction responding to changing environmental conditions, particularly shifting water levels and drainage patterns.

The traditional model selects one interpretation—warfare—without excluding others.

The Illusion of Continuity

Perhaps the most significant issue is the illusion of continuity created by archaeological phasing.

Cadbury Castle is presented as:

Neolithic → Bronze Age → Iron Age → Roman → Post-Roman → Saxon

But this is not a continuous timeline of occupation.

It is a list of disconnected events.

Between these phases lie gaps—sometimes centuries, sometimes longer—where no evidence of sustained activity exists. These gaps are rarely emphasised, because they disrupt the narrative of an “important settlement.”

Instead, the site is framed as persistently occupied, when the evidence more accurately supports periodic reuse of a prominent, strategically located landscape feature.

In other words, the hill is important.

Not necessarily the settlement.

A Simpler Model

If we remove the assumption and focus only on physical constraints, a more economical explanation emerges:

Early activity occurs on high ground because low ground is unstable or flooded
Sites are reused over time because elevated locations remain reliable as conditions change
Earthworks reflect adaptation to landscape conditions, not necessarily warfare
Later cultures reinterpret and reuse earlier features without preserving the original function

This model requires fewer assumptions and aligns with measurable environmental behaviour.

It also explains why sites like Cadbury Castle appear repeatedly in the archaeological record across different periods without requiring continuous occupation.

Maps

1800s OS Map

GE Satellite Map

LiDAR Map

Investigation

Site Flyaround

South Cadbury Castle Flyaround

Site Flyover

South Cadbury Castle Fly Over

Lidar Map showing Bronze Age

South Cadbury Castle – with Bronze Age Water Levels

LiDAR Map showing Mesolithic Period

South Cadbury Castle with Mesloithic Water levels

Defence Strategy 101

Roman Defence System

Roman defences (of the same period as the ‘Iron Age’ ), we notice the ditches were relatively small and narrow. These ditches were called ‘Ankle Breaker’ as the purpose was for the assailant to fall into the ditch (usually containing pointed wooden stakes to either injure or kill the assailant) or to at least break their ankle from the fall, making them immobile. These ditches would be 3 to 4 m wide and about 2m deep and could be dug quickly.

The soil excavated from the ditch would be placed on the defensive side to elevate the defenders, allowing them to look down and fight their attackers from a higher position. Simply standing on elevated ground without a barrier would make defenders easy targets. Therefore, they built fortifications using wooden stakes or stone for more permanent and substantial defences. These fortifications provided cover from spears, arrows, or stones while looking down into the conflict zone. This basic defensive strategy has remained unchanged for thousands of years, as seen with the Normans, who used castles and moats. The moats slowed down assailants, allowing defenders to use crossbows effectively against anyone attempting to cross the deep waters.

Classic Roman Fort With Ditch and Palisade

Lidar Maps of Sth Cadbury Castle Show No Defences

Banks

The banks at South Cadbury Castle show no signs of palisades on top of the bank at any stage before the Roman occupation, which brought stone to the very top of the site. The other four banks appear to be quite flat, as if they have been used for walking upon rather than holding any defensive wooden structures or ‘foxholes.’

Importance and Use of Foxholes in Defense

Concealment and Protection: Foxholes are small, dug-out trenches or pits used by soldiers to provide cover and concealment. They protect defenders from enemy fire and other dangers. By being below ground level, soldiers can remain hidden and minimize their exposure to enemy attacks.

Historical Use: Throughout history, foxholes have been a crucial part of defensive strategies in various military contexts: While the term “foxhole” is modern, the concept of digging protective pits or trenches has been used in various forms throughout history. In ancient battles, soldiers would dig pits to defend against archers and other ranged weapons.

Advantages of Foxholes

Reduced Visibility: Soldiers in foxholes are less visible to the enemy, making it harder for attackers to target them.
Protection from Spears, Rocks and Arrows: Being below ground level the size of the target is greatly reduced.
Stability for Firing: Foxholes provide a stable firing position, allowing soldiers to fire and use their weapons more accurately.

South Cadbury Castle Context

The absence of evidence for palisades or foxholes at South Cadbury Castle before the Roman occupation suggests a different use or purpose for the banks. Instead of being purely defensive, the flat banks must have served other functions.

Ditches

Looking at the construction of the ditches at South Cadbury Castle, we notice that it has no defensive features as expected from a so-called ‘Iron Age Fort’. The ditches are far too broad to be defensive (15m to 30m wide) compared to Roman ‘Ankle Breaker’ of 2m to 3m. The maps show no sign of a wooden or stone barrier, and archaeological excavations have found no evidence of post holes or defensive pits on the banks. Moreover, the Ditch is banked on the wrong side to be defensive, as if it has been built to encase a watery moat. This outside bank would protect any assailants attacking, giving them ample bank coverage. The internal aspect of the Ditch shows no sign of any wooden defensive poles or post holes as seen in Roman Ditches and is designed without internal walls allowing assailants from using the Ditch as cover and the facility to wander around the circumference undercover, testing the weaknesses in the defence. Therefore, as a defensive feature, these types of ditches on so-called ‘Iron Age Forts’ are fundamentally flawed and commonplace.

The LiDAR Maps also show that the ditch of the ditches indicate that they were built for water, as shown by the blue on these images – this then allows us to look at the design of the earthwork in detail, which shows that the banks have been cut by not roads but other ditches. These ditches that cut across the circumference moats cut into them that, suggest that if water had been contained in these ditches, then the vertical dykes could have been used to gaol boats up from the bottom of the dyke ditch to one of these upper moat levels. These same LiDAR maps also show how the soil was distributed to the outside of the moats to enhance and make the feature deeper.

South Cadbury Castle – Banks on the outside to keep in the Water

Water Table

This hypothesis of using these ditches as moats can only be proven if we find the natural springs that could have fed these earthworks in the past. We know from our studies into rivers, such as The Thames and Avon, that they were both much higher and of greater volume in the past, and this height was retained for thousands of years after the last ice age. This enhanced height and volume is reflected and caused by a higher water table. Within these water tables, natural springs are formed, and water leaks into the land, creating rivers and streams. Although we do not have geological information that allows us to trace past springs, we find existing springs in this location (still active today), which suggests our hypothesis is correct.

South Cadbury Castle showing Springs still in existence

Dykes

As we have already suggested, the lack of defensive features shows that this is far from being a fortification; instead, it was used as a trading site with moats to facilitate the mooring of boats. The transportation to these moats was achieved by other earthworks called Linear Earthworks (also known as Dykes). Dykes were introduced when the river shorelines of the Prehistoric fell with the water table, and they wanted to continue to use these established trading sites rather than having to build new sites at a lower level. So, Dykes were built (like roads) to transport goods to market and also minerals extracted from the many quarries which uncommonly surround these Dykes. Here in South Cadbury Castle, we see not only Dykes feeding the local quarry sites but also placed on the side of this Trading site to allow access to the moats for the boats coming off the rivers, ready for unloading/loading.

Slipway built to feed the moats in the upper levels with trading boats

Two Possible Slipways – one connecting directly to a Dyke

To reinforce the use of this site as a trading The site as a trading place has a second vertical earthwork identified through LiDAR technology. This secondary slipway is distinguishable from the initial structure by its lack of connection to a dyke or river. The slipway appears to traverse from the lowest moat up to the top of the site. While photographs may provide a visual reference, the full extent and significance of this feature are best understood through LiDAR models, which enhance the landscape to reveal these historical elements with greater clarity.place, a second verticle earthwork has been identified via LiDAR technology is a secondary slipway, distinguishable from the initial structure by its lack of connection to a dyke or river. This slipway appears to traverse from the lowest moat up to the top of the site. While photographs may provide a visual reference, the full extent and significance of this feature are best understood through LiDAR models, which enhance the landscape to reveal these historical elements with greater clarity.

The Dykes seen on the LiDAR map are concentrated on the quarry in the East of the Site

Dating the Site

Archaeologists are puzzled by the unexpected dates of this site at South Cadbury Castle, the site that was originally thought to be Iron Age from its classification. Therefore, the discovery of Neolithic pits at the site challenges their previously held beliefs about its functions. However, instead of reconsidering their perceptions, they instead provided speculative explanations for these out-of-time artifacts and features. For example, they have described a bank beneath the Iron Age defenses as a “lynchet or terrace derived from early ploughing,” even though there is no carbon dating evidence to support this claim. In reality, this site is likely to be Neolithic, and the ‘lynchets’ could be Mesolithic banks, indicating its true age.

The discovery of the Bronze Age shield is also an indication of the status of the site and its trading routes – as only one has been found, this would indicate that it was part of the trading or personal ownership of someone in the 10th Century BC at this site. This suggests that this was trading could have been at a much earlier date than current archaeologists suggest, which could too have been with the Mediterranean and a possible source of this unusual artefact, as indicated by the other finds from the late saxon period.

Function of the site

The fact that in the East of this site is one of the largest quarries in Somerset and that the Saxons used the fort as a mint just over a thousand years ago proves that the site’s function was a mineral extraction and trading point. This extraction goes back to the Mesolithic period shown on LiDAR maps with a natural harbour by the Quarries and then Dykes to the Trading site as the prehistoric waters fell. No doubt (as the banks are found not to be defensive), the fort was fortified later during the Roman period with Stone as it was to keep the valuable minerals safe but not as a defensive barrier of warfare as suggested. This would explain the minor disturbances and deaths at a single gate as raiders would have attempted to steal the valuable minerals it contained in its workshops, as described by archaeologists.

PodCast

Author’s Biography

Robert John Langdon, a polymathic luminary, emerges as a writer, historian, and eminent specialist in LiDAR Landscape Archaeology.

Exploring Prehistoric Britain: A Journey Through Time

Other Blogs

2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review

8000-year-old Cro-Magnon skull

Vikings, Doggerland, and the Last Survivors of Europe’s Lost Waterworld

Archaeology: A Harbour for Fantasists?

Posted on July 20, 2025 by admin

Introduction

Why are so many people captivated by archaeology? Is it the thrill of unearthing lost civilisations, the mystery of ancient monuments, or something deeper rooted in our minds? Archaeology taps into powerful aspects of human psychology beyond the mere study of the past. Here’s a breakdown of what drives this fascination. (Archaeology: A Harbour for Fantasists).

1. The Need for Connection to Our Origins

From a psychological standpoint, humans have an innate need to understand where they come from. Archaeology offers a tangible link to our collective past. It reassures us that we belong to a larger, ongoing story of humanity. The desire to “know thyself” is not limited to individuals; cultures and societies also seek self-understanding through their historical roots.

This yearning is magnified in times of uncertainty, societal upheaval, or technological acceleration, when the modern world feels disorienting or disconnected. People turn to archaeology not just for historical facts, but for emotional anchoring. Rediscovering a shared origin provides a psychological sense of meaning and stability, even if the interpretations are speculative or mythologised. Archaeology offers a tangible link to our collective past. It reassures us that we belong to a larger, ongoing story of humanity. The desire to “know thyself” is not limited to individuals; cultures and societies also seek self-understanding through their historical roots.

2. Curiosity and the Allure of Mystery

Archaeology offers all the elements of a good mystery: clues, puzzles, hidden meanings, and revelations. Our brains are wired to seek patterns and solve problems. Sites like Stonehenge or Göbekli Tepe trigger a deep psychological itch: we want to know who built them, how, and why. These mysteries give us cognitive stimulation and emotional engagement.

But archaeology is different from most sciences. Archaeology often deals with incomplete evidence unlike biology or physics, which rely heavily on predictable systems and experimental validation. And this opens the door to something else entirely: interpretation.

3. The Collapse of Certainty: Experts and the Unknown

3.1 The Failure of Academic Authority

What separates archaeology is that the so-called “experts” have often failed to explain the big questions. When it comes to ancient monuments, forgotten structures, and inexplicable patterns, the academic response frequently defaults to vague explanations: “ceremonial”, “ritual”, or “symbolic”. In other sciences, unknowns are acknowledged as open questions. In archaeology, unknowns are too often explained away with convenient, unprovable narratives.

This lack of certainty has drawn in a different crowd: the fantasists, the storytellers, and the speculative thinkers. Because if the experts don’t know, then maybe anyone can have a valid guess. And perhaps they can—because the academic gatekeeping has eroded its own authority.

3.2 Psychological Projection and Escapism

Consequently, the discipline is now flooded with a wide range of unscientific ideas. It has become a refuge for individuals with unresolved issues who project meaning onto landscapes in the same way others might see shapes in clouds. Hills become animals, valleys become symbols, and every bump in the ground is imbued with ancestral consciousness. These individuals often claim the ancients were in touch with a higher state of awareness, not through evidence, but through romanticised assumptions, sometimes fuelled by altered states of consciousness.

But the truth is often more psychological than spiritual: it is not that the ancestors were stoned into enlightenment, but rather that modern viewers use archaeology to validate their own personal narratives and escape from reality. In doing so, archaeology becomes a mirror for psychological projection, rather than a method of discovery.

3.3 Social Media Amplification and Delusional Trends

Increasingly, what we observe are textbook psychological symptoms presenting as historical interest. The trend mirrors patterns found in delusional ideation, dissociative fantasy, and pattern projection, where people unconsciously impose structure and meaning onto ambiguous stimuli, known in clinical psychology as pareidolia. This tendency becomes amplified on social media, where the echo chamber effect reinforces pseudoscientific beliefs with likes, shares, and uncritical praise. What begins as curiosity becomes obsession, often linked to underlying paranoid, narcissistic, or schizotypal traits.

It is no coincidence that the explosion of bizarre archaeological claims—from ancient aliens to energy vortexes and psychic stone circles—has paralleled the rise of TikTok mysticism, YouTube pseudohistory, and influencer-driven spiritual narratives. Social media platforms reward novelty over accuracy, and as a result, archaeology has become not just misunderstood but actively weaponised by the mentally unwell to justify disconnection from consensus reality.

Among the most persistent anti-scientific fixations is the obsession with archaeoastronomy. While some alignments may be valid, the field has become increasingly absurd, with proponents claiming that stones were aligned with celestial bodies to a fraction of a degree, levels of precision that would have been impossible without modern instruments. If alignment were the goal, wooden poles would have worked just as well, offering height and visibility rather than requiring 25-ton megaliths that had to be dragged and positioned with superhuman accuracy. The lack of practical logic behind these theories makes their persistence revealing: they are less about evidence and more about feeding the mystical narrative.

From there, it’s a short leap to extraterrestrial stone transport theories, levitation by sound, and a cascade of beliefs involving ley lines and crop circles—non-existent, mathematically impossible, or deliberately fabricated phenomena. The refusal to consider mundane or testable explanations (like pranksters stomping wheat with boards) is not evidence of open-mindedness but an example of motivated reasoning, where belief precedes investigation.

4. Projecting Modern Violence onto the Ancient Past

At the same time, another psychological force is at play: moral projection. Some individuals, burdened by the guilt and brutality of recent centuries—colonialism, imperialism, and relentless warfare—attempt to offload these traits onto prehistory. They construct distorted narratives that portray our ancestors as bloodthirsty tribal killers, creating tales of prehistoric violence to justify or equalise modern conflict. Canals become battle lines, and earthworks become hillforts, not because of evidence, but because of emotional need. This retroactive blaming of ancient peoples is often a subconscious effort to externalise modern violence and preserve a sense of moral balance by rewriting the past as equally savage, imagining lost civilisations as more noble, wise, or spiritually advanced. This reflects a common psychological bias: the idea that there was a “better time” before modern complications. Archaeology gives form to these myths, allowing people to project their ideals onto ancient societies.

5. The Power of Storytelling

Humans are natural storytellers. Archaeology provides the fragments, and our minds eagerly construct narratives. Whether it’s imagining the life of a Neolithic farmer or the fall of a Bronze Age city, these stories help us make sense of our own lives. They provide context, continuity, and sometimes cautionary tales.

What’s more concerning is that the academic establishment encourages much of this imaginative storytelling. Rather than apply scientific discipline, many archaeologists have embraced speculative interpretation. Theories are often presented not as hypotheses to be tested but as dramatic narratives to be believed. This institutional indulgence in myth-making gives licence to public fantasy—and blurs the line between education and entertainment.. Archaeology provides the fragments, and our minds eagerly construct narratives. Whether it’s imagining the life of a Neolithic farmer or the fall of a Bronze Age city, these stories help us make sense of our own lives. They provide context, continuity, and sometimes cautionary tales.

6. Identity and Belonging

For some, archaeology reinforces national, regional, or cultural identity. Discoveries can affirm a group’s historical presence and legitimacy. On a personal level, visiting ancient sites can feel like a pilgrimage, affirming one’s connection to heritage or ancestry.

However, this sense of belonging is often exploited—nowhere more clearly than at Stonehenge. The annual gatherings of modern-day Druids and spiritual seekers are encouraged by the establishment as tourist attractions, yet these gatherings are deeply disconnected from the true archaeological purpose of the site. The monument was not designed for such ceremonies or seasonal celebrations, and no evidence links it to Druidic tradition.

These festivals have more in common with a social outlet than a historical observance. For many participants, the appeal lies not in understanding prehistory but in escaping modern life and joining a like-minded tribe. The result is a spectacle prioritising profit, publicity, and pseudo-ritual over evidence-based research. In reality, such gatherings can obscure the proper function of these sites, substituting emotional need and fantasy for genuine inquiry. What is often billed as a cultural celebration is, in many cases, a psychological refuge for those struggling to find identity and meaning in contemporary society.. Discoveries can affirm a group’s historical presence and legitimacy. On a personal level, visiting ancient sites can feel like a pilgrimage, affirming one’s connection to heritage or ancestry.

8. Escapism and Fantasy

Archaeology lets people momentarily step outside their daily lives. Whether through media, museum exhibits, or field digs, it offers adventure and the chance to imagine oneself as an explorer, detective, or time traveller. It’s no coincidence that popular fiction and film often blend archaeology with fantasy.

But this escapism goes much deeper. For many, archaeology is not simply a hobby—it becomes a psychological refuge from a reality perceived as dull, directionless, or personally unfulfilling. In a world where economic insecurity, social disconnection, and climate anxiety loom large, some individuals seek meaning by retreating into ancient worlds, crafting elaborate alternative narratives filled with cosmic energy, lost wisdom, or imagined ancestral superiority.

Clinical studies in psychology have linked such behaviours to maladaptive daydreaming, fantasy proneness, and identity diffusion—conditions that can intensify when reinforced through online echo chambers. In particular, a 2022 review in the Journal of Behavioral Addictions found that immersive fantasy ideation linked to historical or pseudoscientific topics spiked in individuals reporting low life satisfaction and weak social bonds. Similarly, research from the University of Münster (2020) highlighted that conspiracy-laden pseudohistory content users exhibited elevated schizotypy markers, often coupled with a deep distrust of conventional authority.

In short, the archaeological fantasy space has become a surrogate realm for many who feel alienated from the present. What appears to be curiosity is often the mind’s attempt to rewrite reality into a more meaningful—albeit fictional—form.. Whether through media, museum exhibits, or field digs, it offers adventure and the chance to imagine oneself as an explorer, detective, or time traveller. It’s no coincidence that popular fiction and film often blend archaeology with fantasy.

9. Popular Pseudoscientific Beliefs and Why They’re Absurd

In today’s media landscape, these beliefs are not only tolerated—they’re incentivised. With the rise of clickbait journalism and monetised social media platforms, words like ‘Atlantis’ and ‘Stonehenge’ are routinely dropped into headlines to maximise reach and engagement, regardless of relevance. This deliberate strategy attracts opportunists who generate income from page views and video traffic by promoting sensational nonsense over rigorous science. In effect, the absurd has become more profitable than the accurate, and archaeology suffers for it.

Ley Lines

Claim: Invisible energy paths that connect sacred sites across landscapes. Why It’s Absurd: There is no physical evidence that ley lines exist, no measurable energy associated with them, and the patterns are easily generated through selective map reading, similar to connecting dots in a constellation. It’s classic confirmation bias mixed with pareidolia.

Crop Circles

Claim: Messages from higher beings or evidence of extraterrestrial activity. Why It’s Absurd: Repeatedly and publicly demonstrated as human-made hoaxes, often by artists with planks and string. Yet belief persists due to wishful thinking, distrust of authority, and social media amplification.

Extraterrestrial Builders

Claim: Aliens helped construct ancient monuments like the pyramids or Stonehenge. Why It’s Absurd: A deeply problematic theory that underestimates ancient human ingenuity while conveniently ignoring all the logistical and cultural evidence of local effort. No material proof of alien technology has ever been found.

Sound Levitation and Anti-Gravity Transport

Claim: Prehistoric people moved stones with sound waves or anti-gravity. Why It’s Absurd: No credible physical demonstration or archaeological trace supports these theories. They’re built on fringe speculation and retrofitted modern physics buzzwords.

Extreme Archaeoastronomy

Claim: Megaliths were aligned to celestial events with millimetre precision thousands of years ago. Why It’s Absurd: It requires absurd levels of measuring accuracy without tools or mathematics, and fails the practicality test—wooden poles would be better suited than 25-ton stones.

Conclusion: A Discipline at the Crossroads

We are now witnessing the collapse of archaeology as a scientific discipline. Universities increasingly classify it not as a science, but as a branch of the humanities or social studies, folding archaeology into history departments or shutting them down entirely. Once defined by methodical excavation and empirical evidence, the field is being overrun by unverifiable narratives, mystical speculation, and emotional storytelling.

This shift poses a stark warning: if archaeology continues down this road, it risks losing its credibility entirely. The absence of scientific standards invites delusion, encourages the mentally unstable, and ultimately erodes public trust. Without rigorous methods and accountability, archaeology ceases to be a tool for understanding the past and becomes merely another platform for modern myth-making.

Another clear symptom of this decline is the widespread use of exaggerated or false claims to attract media attention and secure funding. We see it repeatedly: the moment two ditches are found, a ’causewayed enclosure’ is declared. A single bank and ditch on a hill becomes a ‘hillfort’. Any sunken feature near the sea is quickly linked to Atlantis. These inflated labels are not driven by data but by desperation to generate headlines, justify budgets, and keep research careers afloat in an increasingly sceptical and underfunded academic world. It is institutional survival masquerading as scientific discovery.

It’s time to reassert archaeology as a science—not through the lens of ritual, fantasy, and myth—but through evidence, logic, and disciplined analysis. Otherwise, we may soon find the field buried under the very fantasies it once sought to dispel.

PodCast

Silbury Avenue - Avebury's First Stone Avenue

Author’s Biography

Robert John Langdon, a polymathic luminary, emerges as a writer, historian, and eminent specialist in LiDAR Landscape Archaeology.

His intellectual voyage has interwoven with stints as an astute scrutineer for governmental realms and grand corporate bastions, a tapestry spanning British Telecommunications, Cable and Wireless, British Gas, and the esteemed University of London.

In the symphony of his life, Robert is a custodian of three progeny and a pair of cherished grandchildren. His sanctuary lies ensconced in the embrace of West Wales, where he inhabits an isolated cottage, its windows framing a vista of the boundless sea – a retreat from the scrutinous gaze of the Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs, an amiable clandestinity in the lap of nature’s embrace.

(The Stonehenge Code)

Exploring Prehistoric Britain: A Journey Through Time

My blog delves into the fascinating mysteries of prehistoric Britain, challenging conventional narratives and offering fresh perspectives based on cutting-edge research, particularly using LiDAR technology. I invite you to explore some key areas of my research. For example, the Wansdyke, often cited as a defensive structure, is re-examined in light of new evidence. I’ve presented my findings in my blog post Wansdyke: A British Frontier Wall – ‘Debunked’, and a Wansdyke LiDAR Flyover video further visualizes my conclusions.

My work also often challenges established archaeological dogma. I argue that many sites, such as Hambledon Hill, commonly identified as Iron Age hillforts are not what they seem. My posts Lidar Investigation Hambledon Hill – NOT an ‘Iron Age Fort’ and Unmasking the “Iron Age Hillfort” Myth explore these ideas in detail and offer an alternative view. Similarly, sites like Cissbury Ring and White Sheet Camp, also receive a re-evaluation based on LiDAR analysis in my posts Lidar Investigation Cissbury Ring through time and Lidar Investigation White Sheet Camp, revealing fascinating insights into their true purpose. I have also examined South Cadbury Castle, often linked to the mythical Camelot56.

My research also extends to the topic of ancient water management, including the role of canals and other linear earthworks. I have discussed the true origins of Car Dyke in multiple posts including Car Dyke – ABC News PodCast and Lidar Investigation Car Dyke – North Section, suggesting a Mesolithic origin2357. I also explore the misidentification of Roman aqueducts, as seen in my posts on the Great Chesters (Roman) Aqueduct. My research has also been greatly informed by my post-glacial flooding hypothesis which has helped to inform the landscape transformations over time. I have discussed this hypothesis in several posts including AI now supports my Post-Glacial Flooding Hypothesis and Exploring Britain’s Flooded Past: A Personal Journey

Finally, my blog also investigates prehistoric burial practices, as seen in Prehistoric Burial Practices of Britain and explores the mystery of Pillow Mounds, often mistaken for medieval rabbit warrens, but with a potential link to Bronze Age cremation in my posts: Pillow Mounds: A Bronze Age Legacy of Cremation? and The Mystery of Pillow Mounds: Are They Really Medieval Rabbit Warrens?. My research also includes the astronomical insights of ancient sites, for example, in Rediscovering the Winter Solstice: The Original Winter Festival. I also review new information about the construction of Stonehenge in The Stonehenge Enigma.

Other Blogs

2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review

8000-year-old Cro-Magnon skull

Vikings, Doggerland, and the Last Survivors of Europe’s Lost Waterworld

Silbury Avenue – Avebury’s First Stone Avenue

Posted on June 29, 2025 by admin

Introduction

In 2014 a third stone‑lined processional way was recognised within the Avebury UNESCO World Heritage landscape. Archaeologists have long known the West Kennet Avenue and the Beckhampton Avenue, because many of their giant sarsen uprights still punctuate the fields. Nobody had imagined a hidden counterpart until a band of subtle turf marks on Waden Hill was spotted in enhanced air‑photos and ground‑truthed on the slope (see Silbury Avenue – Avebury’s First Stone Avenue). I have provisionally christened the new line “Silbury Avenue,” because it climbs the ridge and then would have descended towards Silbury Hill.

Digital enhancement revealed a ribbon of greener “patches” stretching roughly 470 m up Waden Hill’s north‑west flank; if the sockets continued down to the Kennet flood‑plain the avenue would total about 1.47 km. Counting the colour anomalies indicates at least nineteen stone‑pairs, each ≈ 25 m apart and defining a corridor 15–20 m wide — essentially a match for West Kennet Avenue, whose stones stand 22–24 m apart across a path 15–17 m wide (Stonehenge Stone Transportation Hoax).

Back in 1936 Keiller & Piggott excavated the northern arm of West Kennet Avenue and discovered it had been set out as ten ruler‑straight segments, not William Stukeley’s elegant serpent (Keiller & Piggott 1936). Their plan shows the line drifting west of Avebury’s south entrance; later pairs kink back in a pronounced zig‑zag. Explanations have varied: a prehistoric surveying blunder (Burl 2002), a drafting error in Keiller’s plan (Gillings & Pollard 2004), or deliberate symbolic geometry (Sims 2009). Silbury Avenue resolves the puzzle: the earliest stones formed a direct line between Avebury and Silbury Hill; when processional emphasis later shifted south‑east toward The Sanctuary, masons grafted a dog‑leg onto that older axis.

A New Three‑Dimensional Landscape

Silbury Avenue does not take the beeline to Silbury Hill; instead it climbs the ridge crest. There, nine Bronze‑Age round barrows flank — yet never interrupt — the stone‑line, proving the avenue is older than the mounds. A 1913 water‑pipe trench near the crest cut an oval pit filled with Windmill Hill sherds, burnt flint and animal bone, hinting at Mesolithic–Neolithic activity long before the barrows rose (Whitehead & Edmunds 2012).

The ridge offered practical advantages: carts or sledges avoided the steepest gradient and travellers gained a sweeping view of the Kennet valley. That stance is exactly where Silbury Hill’s beacon would first appear to a procession leaving Avebury, tying topography to spectacle.

Where Silbury Avenue Ends

After cresting Waden Hill the socket‑line does not run straight to Silbury Hill. Instead it veers down the gentle south‑west slope and stops on the flood‑plain at a low, circular mound long nick‑named “Silbaby” (a.k.a. Waden Mound). Early engravings reproduced by Stukeley mark the same bump beside the mediaeval track, and modern LiDAR shows a raised berm about 20 m west of today’s farm lane — almost certainly the original causeway that carried the avenue to the mound (Silbury Avenue – Avebury’s First Stone Avenue).

Local researcher Pete Glastonbury re‑identified the earthwork in 2011, traced the avenue’s last sockets to it, and commissioned coring. Those cores revealed a chalk‑rich matrix and Neolithic–Early‑Bronze‑Age charcoal, contradicting a later suggestion that the mound was post‑mediaeval spoil (Glastonbury pers. comm.; Mesolithic River Avon Case Study). Because Silbaby sits on an artificial spur that channels Waden Spring into the Kennet, it would have projected into open water for much of the year, giving boats deep enough draught to lie alongside even in flood. LiDAR also shows a hard‑packed apron on the south edge. Taken together, the evidence indicates that Silbaby was intentionally constructed as a riverside loading platform—an embanked spot where sledges coming down Silbury Avenue could transfer stones or other cargo onto boats for onward travel along the Kennet.

Reading the avenue this way clarifies two old puzzles. First, the stones climb the ridge because the south‑west descent offers the shallowest haul to the only reliable harbour. Second, the stone‑pairs stop at Silbaby because onward travel switched from road to river: Silbury Hill itself, surrounded by deep winter pools, was never the quay but the lighthouse marking the approach. Silbaby is therefore the functional full‑stop of Silbury Avenue — the hinge where Avebury’s over‑land processions and its riverine trade converged.

Implications for Avebury’s Chronology

Recognising Silbaby as the avenue’s terminus shows that West Kennet Avenue’s zig‑zag is not a prehistoric “mistake” but a later splice grafted on when the harbour at Silbury Hill silted up and traffic shifted east to The Sanctuary. John Aubrey’s seventeenth‑century sketch of a matching dog‑leg at the Sanctuary end confirms that both termini are secondary (Stonehenge Stone Transportation Hoax).

Sequence now reads:

Silbury Avenue and Silbaby/Waden Mound laid out first, linking Avebury directly to its beacon‑harbour.
Round barrows added on the ridge, respecting but not intersecting the avenue.
West Kennet Avenue begun as an extension, later kinked south‑east when the Kennet receded and a new unloading ground was needed at The Sanctuary.
Beckhampton Avenue and other monuments accreted as the valley dried further.

Conclusion

Silbury Avenue transforms our mental map of Avebury. What once looked like an eccentric detour now emerges as a freight road engineered for carts, sledges, ceremony — and crucially — for a river harbour that existed only while Kennet levels were higher. Silbaby, the modest mound on the flood‑plain, turns out to be the key: loading platform where land met water, and symbolism merged with logistics.

Future trenching inside Silbaby, coupled with a full socket survey along the south‑west descent, could lock this model in place or overturn it. Either way, recognising the avenue’s true destination forces us to read Avebury’s stones not just as ritual architecture but as part of a dynamic transport system built for a landscape that is now largely lost beneath the plough.

Key sources

Blog posts: Silbury Avenue – Avebury’s First Stone Avenue; Stonehenge Stone Transportation Hoax; Mesolithic River Avon Case Study; and others listed in the blog index.Introduction

Keiller, A. & Piggott, C. (1936) Excavations at Avebury.

Burl, A. (2002) Prehistoric Avebury.

Gillings, M. & Pollard, J. (2004) Avebury.

Sims, L. (2009) ‘Decoding Avebury’.

Whitehead, P. & Edmunds, M. (2012) ‘Palaeohydrology of the Kennet and the Siting of Silbury Hill’, EH Research Report 12‑2012.

(Silbury Avenue – Avebury’s First Stone Avenue)

Podcast

Author’s Biography

Robert John Langdon, a polymathic luminary, emerges as a writer, historian, and eminent specialist in LiDAR Landscape Archaeology.

In the symphony of his life, Robert is a custodian of three progeny and a pair of cherished grandchildren. His sanctuary lies ensconced in the embrace of West Wales, where he inhabits an isolated cottage, its windows framing a vista of the boundless sea – a retreat from the scrutinous gaze of the Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs, an amiable clandestinity in the lap of nature’s embrace.

(The Stonehenge Code)

Exploring Prehistoric Britain: A Journey Through Time

Finally, my blog also investigates prehistoric burial practices, as seen in Prehistoric Burial Practices of Britain and explores the mystery of Pillow Mounds, often mistaken for medieval rabbit warrens, but with a potential link to Bronze Age cremation in my posts: Pillow Mounds: A Bronze Age Legacy of Cremation? and The Mystery of Pillow Mounds: Are They Really Medieval Rabbit Warrens?. My research also includes the astronomical insights of ancient sites, for example, in Rediscovering the Winter Solstice: The Original Winter Festival. I also review new information about the construction of Stonehenge in The Stonehenge Enigma.

Other Blogs

2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review

8000-year-old Cro-Magnon skull

Vikings, Doggerland, and the Last Survivors of Europe’s Lost Waterworld

Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth

Posted on June 22, 2025 by admin

Introduction

For over a century, British archaeology has repeated the same tale: Offa’s Dyke and Wat’s Dyke were built by Saxon kings to define borders and display royal power. But each time we peel back another layer—literally and figuratively—the data tells a radically different story. This is no longer about interpretation or fringe theory. The scientific evidence, especially from radiocarbon dating, blows the Saxon myth apart.(Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

1. The Mesolithic Nuts Beneath the Bank

At Gobowen, Shropshire, archaeologists uncovered pits beneath Wat’s Dyke filled with charred hazelnut shells and twigs. Radiocarbon dating placed these at 5210–4840 BC—deep into the Mesolithic. This is not “background noise.” It proves the site was in use—and likely managed—thousands of years before any so-called Saxon activity. (Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

Gobowen Side where they found the Mesolithic Hearths – (Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

2. The “Twigs” and the Bronze Age Pattern

Here’s where things get explosive. Two different digs—at Gobowen and Maes-y-Clawdd—each pulled a charred twig from the primary fill of the dyke’s ditch. Both were sent to modern AMS labs for dating. These were sent to independent AMS labs for testing:

Gobowen: 2825 ± 40 BP, calibrated to 1120–890 BC
Maes-y-Clawdd: 2855 ± 40 BP, calibrated to 1120–890 BC

Different labs, different sites, nearly identical dates: Late Bronze Age.
Some might claim “residuality” or accident, but when the same date keeps showing up in primary contexts at different sites, the odds of pure coincidence plummet.(Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

3. Erddig and Chirk: More Prehistoric Dates

The new gold standard in the debate is the peer-reviewed Archaeologia Cambrensis study (Malim et al. 2021), which returned:

Erddig: Alder charcoal under the bank, 1414–1258 BC (Bronze Age)
Chirk: Charcoal at base of bank, 776–543 BC (Iron Age)

These aren’t rogue samples. They are part of a systematic pattern. (Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

4. The Car Dyke and Wansdyke Parallels

Our recent research on Car Dyke—summarised in my book, Car Dyke: The Lost Waterways of Prehistoric Britain—shows exactly the same pattern. LiDAR analysis, gradient modeling, and dated artefacts reveal this “Roman” canal sits atop a much older, prehistoric water-management system, later adapted by the Romans. The same sequence—prehistoric construction, Roman enhancement, and later reuse—emerges at other great linear earthworks.

Wansdyke: More than Just a Saxon Bank and Ditch

Roman Water System at the Summit:
Topographic and archaeological evidence shows that a Roman water-management system, likely an aqueduct or channel, was constructed along sections of Wansdyke near Cliffe Pypard and Cherhill. The Roman works appear to incorporate the line and gradient of the existing dyke, indicating that the dyke was already present and subsequently adapted for Roman infrastructure needs. This reuse implies that the dyke is pre-Roman in origin, forming part of an older, possibly prehistoric, water-management landscape. Rather than constructing a new route, the Romans modified what was already there—strong evidence that Wansdyke was not their creation, but an earlier engineering feature they found valuable enough to repurpose.
Roman Road Laid On the Dyke:
To the north of Morgan’s Hill, a documented Roman road is physically laid on top of the Wansdyke bank. The logical sequence? The dyke had to exist before the road. (For detail and field evidence, see: prehistoric-britain.co.uk/prehistoric-canals-dykes-wansdyke4)
The Implication:
These features make it impossible to honestly claim that Wansdyke is purely a Saxon or sub-Roman structure. Instead, we’re seeing a prehistoric engineering work—possibly a canal or water-management feature—repurposed by the Romans, and then again in later centuries.

(Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

A Consistent Prehistoric Pattern

The parallels between Car Dyke, Wansdyke, Offa’s Dyke, and Wat’s Dyke are now undeniable:

All show prehistoric (Mesolithic, Bronze Age, or Iron Age) dates or structural evidence in primary contexts.
All were reused, enlarged, or recut by later societies—be it the Romans, Saxons, or Medievals.
All have been misunderstood because traditional narratives refuse to follow the evidence.

(Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

5. Why the Saxon Narrative No Longer Holds

Traditional archaeology claims these dykes were built in the Dark Ages because it’s “what’s always been said” and because a handful of OSL dates cluster in the early medieval period. But with so many radiocarbon dates from secure, primary contexts returning Bronze Age and Iron Age results, the only scientific response is to question the narrative—not the data.

This shift isn’t limited to a few isolated studies. In 2019, Historic England (formerly English Heritage) published a national overview of linear earthworks, concluding that most of the dykes they had investigated dated to the prehistoric period, not the early medieval one. Their guidance document, Prehistoric Linear Boundary Earthworks, situates these features firmly in the Late Neolithic through to the Iron Age, aligning with the growing body of radiocarbon evidence and undermining the traditional Dark Age attribution.

Rather than reinforcing the Saxon story, modern research now supports a much older, more complex landscape—one that was later reused and reinterpreted by the Romans and Saxons alike.

(Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

6. AI and Modern Method: The Death of Peer-Reviewed Dogma

For years, peer review has failed to challenge inherited assumptions. “Authority” was all that mattered—a single, dramatic radiocarbon date (like the infamous 6.25 kg of charcoal at Maes-y-Clawdd) could define an entire monument’s chronology, regardless of context or contradictory data from other sites.

But now? AI is revolutionising how we check and interpret archaeological evidence.

Take our recent FB post, where we used AI to reassess the Maes-y-Clawdd excavation:

Myth: The excavation report’s headline date (c. 400 AD) from the charcoal was endlessly repeated as proof of a “Roman” or “sub-Roman” dyke.
AI’s Role:
- Pulled together site photos, original reports, ditch profiles, and stratigraphy from multiple digs.
- Flagged the ditch’s V-shape (classic recut) and the heavy truncation of the bank (over half missing)—which undermined the idea that the charcoal was securely “sealed” and contemporary with construction.
- Cross-referenced other sites (Gobowen, Erddig, Chirk), showing that Bronze Age and Iron Age dates in similar primary contexts kept reappearing—not as random “residuals,” but as a systematic pattern.
Outcome:
- Instead of blindly accepting published “facts,” AI let us validate or reject past interpretations using all the available primary evidence.
- The “Roman” story now stands exposed as an artefact of interpretation, not of data.

This is not “pseudoscience”—it’s the very definition of the scientific method:

Gather all the evidence.
Challenge every conclusion.
Rebuild the narrative when the facts demand it.

Just as AI is transforming genetics, climate science, and engineering, it’s now arming archaeology with the ability to see through myths, correct errors, and put our past on a solid, evidence-based footing. If you want real history, let the data—and AI—lead the way. (Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

Conclusion: Follow the Data, Not the Doctrine

The parallels between Offa’s Dyke, Wat’s Dyke, Car Dyke, and Wansdyke are now undeniable:

All show prehistoric (Mesolithic, Bronze Age, or Iron Age) evidence in primary contexts
All were reused, recut, or adapted by Romans, Saxons, and Medieval societies
All have been misunderstood because inherited narratives resisted revision

The story we’ve been told—that Saxon kings built these monuments as borders—is no longer sustainable.

The data demands a paradigm shift. (Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

References

Hannaford, H.R. (1997), SCCAS Report no. 111, An Interim Report on Archaeological Excavations on Wat’s Dyke at Maes-y-Clawdd, Oswestry.
Malim, T. & Hayes, L. (2008), The Date and Nature of Wat’s Dyke: a reassessment in the light of recent investigations at Gobowen, Shropshire, ASSAH 15.
Malim, T., Hoggard, C., et al. (2021). “Offa’s Dyke and Wat’s Dyke: Scientific Dating at Chirk and Erddig, North Wales.” Archaeologia Cambrensis, 170, pp. 93–117.
Langdon, R.J. (2024), Car Dyke: The Lost Waterways of Prehistoric Britain.
For Wansdyke Roman features and road evidence: prehistoric-britain.co.uk/prehistoric-canals-dykes-wansdyke4

Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth

Annex: The “Twig” Radiocarbon Dates—Technical Details

For those who want the technical data, here are the exact C14 results from the two most cited Bronze Age “twig” samples:

Site	Sample Type	Lab Code	Radiocarbon Age (BP)	Error	Calibrated Range (2σ)	Context
Gobowen	Charred twig	GU-14866	2825	±40	1120–890 BC	Primary ditch fill
Maes-y-Clawdd	Charred twig	(various)	2855	±40	1120–890 BC	Lower ditch fill

Both dates are from independent, high-quality AMS labs, and ±40 years is standard error for these samples.
The calibration uses the most up-to-date IntCal curve.
Their remarkable similarity is not a flaw, but evidence for a real prehistoric episode.

Other Blogs

2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review

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Vikings, Doggerland, and the Last Survivors of Europe’s Lost Waterworld

(Twigs, Charcoal, and the Death of the Saxon Dyke Myth)

13 Things You Didn’t Know About Hillforts — The Real Story Behind Britain’s Ancient Earthworks

Posted on June 7, 2025 by admin

Introduction

Hillforts have long been cast as the mighty defensive bastions of prehistoric Britain, iconic symbols of Iron Age tribal warfare and territorial defence. But if you peel back the layers of archaeological evidence, a very different, far more complex picture emerges. While some hillforts were adapted for military use during later periods—particularly during Roman expansion—the majority were multifunctional hubs serving economic, ceremonial, territorial, and social roles rather than purely defensive purposes.

Below, we unravel 13 surprising facts that challenge the traditional fortress narrative, shedding light on the true nature of hillforts across Britain and Ireland. Prepare to rethink what you thought you knew.

13 Things You Didn’t Know About Hillforts — Hillforts have long been cast as the mighty defensive bastions of prehistoric Britain, iconic symbols of Iron Age tribal warfare and territorial defence

1. Hillfort Classifications Are Outdated and Over-Simplified

For nearly a century, archaeologists have tried to neatly categorize hillforts based on size, location, rampart construction, and age. Early scholars like Sir Mortimer Wheeler and later Barry Cunliffe developed classification schemes grouping hillforts into types such as early hilltop enclosures over 10 hectares, smaller settlements of 1–3 hectares, early univallate forts, and more complex multivallate sites. These categories aimed to make sense of the diversity by assigning function and status, often equating larger or more complex sites with defensive importance.

However, these classifications are increasingly questioned because they lean heavily on limited physical evidence and overlook the social and economic functions of these sites. For example, a large enclosure doesn’t necessarily mean a military fortress; it could be a ceremonial gathering place or a centre for trade. Likewise, a simple earthwork might have deep ritual significance rather than being a mere settlement defence. This simplified framework risks distorting the true roles these structures played in prehistoric societies.

By focusing too much on size and fortification features, scholars have missed the multifunctional nature of hillforts. Archaeological evidence now points to a more nuanced understanding: these sites often combined social, economic, political, and ritual functions alongside occasional defensive adaptations. We must therefore treat traditional categories with caution and embrace complexity.

2. The “Fortress” Definition Has Stuck For Too Long

The classical definition of a hillfort, as “a fortified refuge or defended habitation on elevated ground,” still dominates textbooks and popular understanding. Wikipedia and many reference works place hillforts squarely in the Bronze or Iron Age and depict them as military installations designed to control territory and repel attackers. Their defining features are steep earthworks, ramparts, palisades, and ditches, strategically placed to take advantage of high ground.

While this definition neatly fits some later hillforts, it oversimplifies a wide array of prehistoric enclosures that often lack convincing military architecture or evidence of warfare. Moreover, it ignores that many of these sites have much older origins, with some showing continuity of use stretching back thousands of years before the Iron Age, into the Neolithic or even Mesolithic periods. The persistence of this fortress-centric view obscures the diverse social realities of prehistoric communities.

Holding on to this entrenched definition restricts archaeological interpretation and public perception. It encourages viewing hillforts as relics of constant warfare rather than appreciating their complex social, ceremonial, and economic dimensions. The reality, as recent research shows, is far richer and more varied.

3. Hillforts Were Around Before the Iron Age

Many people associate hillforts exclusively with the Iron Age, roughly 800 BC to AD 43 in Britain. However, extensive excavations reveal that numerous hillforts have earlier origins, dating back to the Late Bronze Age and even Neolithic times. Cultures such as the Urnfield (1300–750 BC), Hallstatt (1200–500 BC), and La Tène (600 BC–50 AD) saw the proliferation of hillforts, but the groundwork was laid much earlier.

For instance, archaeological layers in famous sites like Maiden Castle and Danebury contain flint tools and pottery shards from the Neolithic and Mesolithic eras. This pushes back their initial construction or use by several millennia before the traditionally accepted Iron Age period.

This deep time depth challenges the fortress narrative by suggesting many hillforts began as community or ritual centres long before any significant tribal warfare. Their repeated reuse over thousands of years indicates multifunctional importance beyond defence and highlights the continuity and adaptation of prehistoric societies.

4. Population Growth Doesn’t Match the Fortress Theory

Prehistoric Britain’s population dynamics don’t quite fit with the idea of a landscape littered with defensive forts. Estimates suggest that during the Neolithic (circa 5000 BC), Europe’s population hovered between 2 and 5 million. By the Late Iron Age, it had swelled to roughly 15 to 30 million. But except for dense pockets like Greece and Italy, most settlements in Britain were small, often supporting fewer than 50 people.

Hillforts stand out as exceptions, accommodating communities as large as 1,000, but such numbers were rare. The later appearance of oppida—urban centers housing up to 10,000—reflects increasing societal complexity. However, the distribution and density of hillforts do not correlate with an equally dense, heavily militarized population needing constant defense.

The logistical challenge of defending thousands of these hillforts, each requiring a substantial population of warriors and support staff, becomes apparent when population estimates are compared to fort numbers. There simply weren’t enough people to maintain standing armies or garrisons in every hillfort, undermining the fortress theory.

5. Hillforts Were NOT Evenly Distributed — Which Defies Pure Defence Logic

If hillforts were purely defensive, you’d expect them to be evenly spaced, strategically located to guard borders or resources. But the reality is messier. Over 3,300 hillforts are clustered unevenly across the British Isles. Take the Isle of Man—a tiny island of 572 square kilometres—with an astounding 32 hillforts. That’s roughly one hillfort every 5 to 6 square kilometres, far too dense to be defensible or necessary purely for military protection.

Additionally, about 30% of hillforts hug coastlines, with another 50% near prehistoric river systems. This heavy concentration around water suggests that control of waterways, trade, and communication routes were important considerations. Another 70% are near quarrying or resource extraction zones, linking hillforts to economic activity rather than just defense.

Such distribution patterns are inconsistent with a landscape dominated by warring tribes guarding fixed territories. Instead, they imply hillforts functioned as hubs for trade, social interaction, resource management, and ritual gatherings tied closely to natural and economic landscapes.

6. Little Evidence of Warfare or Prolonged Occupation

If hillforts were military bastions, we would expect abundant archaeological evidence of sustained occupation, such as permanent housing, weapon caches, and clear defensive structures like palisades or gatehouses. We would also expect to find mass graves or layers of debris from sieges.

Yet, surprisingly, few hillforts show such evidence. Many have signs of only episodic or seasonal occupation. Archaeologists rarely find weapons stockpiles or large-scale battle remains inside hillforts. Defensive architectural features are often minimal or absent, and many ditches have shapes inconsistent with fortification—flat-bottomed, not steep and V-shaped.

This absence of clear martial evidence points to alternative interpretations: hillforts served multiple roles, perhaps acting as gathering places for trade, ritual ceremonies, or political meetings, with defense being a secondary or occasional function.

7. Danebury Hillfort Is Probably Older and Less “Fortress” Than Thought

Danebury in Hampshire is often cited as a classic Iron Age hillfort, extensively excavated by Barry Cunliffe in the 1970s. While traditionally dated to the 6th century BC and used for about 500 years, recent carbon dating and flint finds suggest it began as a Late Bronze Age stock enclosure 3,000 years ago. Some evidence even points to Neolithic or Mesolithic origins.

Excavations uncovered thousands of flints spanning multiple prehistoric periods, alongside Beaker pottery, challenging the notion that Danebury was a purely Iron Age military installation. Furthermore, LiDAR technology revealed a linear earthwork or dyke connected to the fort’s outer ditch—possibly a prehistoric waterway—hinting that Danebury might have been linked by boat transport rather than isolated on a hilltop.

Its ditches have soil deposited mostly on the outside rather than the inside, contradicting standard defensive designs. Together, these facts point towards Danebury functioning as a multifunctional site, involved in trade and social activities, rather than solely as a fortress.

Danbury Showing the Ditches were connected to dykes from the paleochannel below

8. Maiden Castle’s Massive Size Was Logistically Impossible to Defend

Maiden Castle in Dorset is Britain’s largest hillfort, sprawling over 47 hectares. This sheer size would require an enormous number of defenders—estimates suggest 155 soldiers per shift, totaling around 465 to cover 24-hour protection. That’s not counting support personnel, families, and provisions.

Feeding and supplying such a large garrison would be a monumental task. Monthly food needs would include vast amounts of grain and meat, requiring extensive storage, pastureland for livestock (around 516 animals per month), and water—at least 15 deep wells, supplying almost 750,000 litres monthly. Yet, archaeological digs and LiDAR surveys reveal only a handful of residential structures and no evidence of such water management infrastructure.

Additionally, no workshops or industrial sites capable of producing weapons and armour at scale have been found. This logistical void casts serious doubt on the idea that Maiden Castle was a continuously manned military fortress rather than a large social or ritual centre.

9. Maiden Castle’s “Massacre” Is Much Less Clear-Cut Than Popular Tales

Popular accounts sometimes describe Maiden Castle as the site of a Roman siege massacre. However, excavations found only a handful of burials near entrances, with no mass graves or battlefield debris layers typical of large-scale violence.

Among the burials were an adult male with a debated projectile wound, a young woman with trauma signs, and several children—not typical combatants. Most bodies showed no direct evidence of violent death.

Over 20,000 slingstones discovered near entrances might suggest defensive stockpiles, but their purpose could also be ritualistic or related to hunting. After the supposed Roman attack, the site was largely abandoned, implying that its defensive role, if any, was limited and temporary.

10. Old Sarum Is Misunderstood as a Hillfort

Old Sarum, located in Wiltshire, is often labeled an Iron Age hillfort established around 400 BC. It later became a Roman fort and then a medieval castle site. However, its position on a floodplain island, not a prominent hill, challenges the traditional fortress narrative.

Claims of Roman roads converging there have been questioned by LiDAR and satellite data, which show no clear road leading to Bath or elsewhere. The earthworks around Old Sarum appear more consistent with water management or moated enclosures than defensive ditches. Soil spoil was found mostly outside ditches, suggesting construction to hold water rather than repel enemies.

The ditch spoil is placed on the outside of the site to create a moat not inside to create a defensive bank

11. Many Hillforts May Have Been Waterborne Trade Hubs, Not Forts

Some hillfort ditches and earthworks may have functioned as prehistoric moats or canals, filled naturally due to higher ancient water tables or artificially to facilitate boat traffic. This suggests hillforts could have been accessible by water, acting as trading hubs connected through river networks.

LiDAR scans reveal links between earthworks and ancient waterways, highlighting a landscape adapted for waterborne movement rather than isolated hilltop defense. This theory fits with the frequent coastal and riverine siting of hillforts and their association with quarry and resource sites.

Old Sarum is in the middle of an ancient flood plain surrounded by giant rivers

12. Economic Evidence Contradicts Military Function

True military sites like Roman forts show dense economic footprints: lost coins, markets, bathhouses, workshops, and dense habitation. Hillforts lack this. Coins are extremely rare even after coinage was common. There are no permanent markets or large public buildings supporting garrisoned troops.

Instead, hillforts yield evidence of seasonal occupation: animal enclosures, storage pits, and sparse artefacts, reflecting episodic use for trade, social gatherings, or ritual. This economic silence is a strong indicator that hillforts were not permanent military bases but multifunctional social centres

13. Hillforts Were Multifunctional Community Centres

All evidence points toward hillforts as dynamic, multifunctional hubs where prehistoric communities gathered seasonally for trade, political negotiation, rituals, and resource management. Defense may have been a later addition or an occasional function but was rarely the primary purpose.

Their diverse roles challenge the simplistic “fortress” label and invite us to rethink prehistoric Britain as a complex network of interconnected social landscapes, not a battlefield scattered with defensive works.

Conclusion

With new dating methods, LiDAR technology, and detailed excavations, the “hillfort as fortress” idea no longer holds water. We need to embrace a broader, richer understanding of these sites as centers of ancient community life, economy, and ritual.

What Archaeology Must Prove To Call Hillforts “Forts”.

To keep the “fort” label credible, archaeologists must find:.

Large permanent residences and housing clusters.

Reliable water supplies (wells, cisterns).

Dense loss of coins and trade items.

Associated civilian settlements outside gates.

Evidence of workshops making weapons and armor.

Defensible gatehouses and ramparts designed for battle.

Layers showing repeated conflict or siege trauma.

So far? – Those lines of evidence are mostly absent.

Final Thought.

Hillforts aren’t just relics of ancient warfare — they’re dynamic social landscapes, hubs of economy, ritual, and community. It’s time to move beyond outdated militaristic views and embrace their true complexity.

As the saying goes:

“Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence — and calling hillforts ‘forts’ without it is no longer credible archaeology.”

Exploring Prehistoric Britain: A Journey Through Time

Finally, my blog also investigates prehistoric burial practices, as seen in Prehistoric Burial Practices of Britain and explores the mystery of Pillow Mounds, often mistaken for medieval rabbit warrens, but with a potential link to Bronze Age cremation in my posts: Pillow Mounds: A Bronze Age Legacy of Cremation? and The Mystery of Pillow Mounds: Are They Really Medieval Rabbit Warrens?. My research also includes the astronomical insights of ancient sites, for example, in Rediscovering the Winter Solstice: The Original Winter Festival. I also review new information about the construction of Stonehenge in The Stonehenge Enigma.

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Newgrange – Monument or Disneyland?

Posted on March 29, 2025 by admin

Introduction

Nestled in the heart of Ireland’s Boyne Valley, Newgrange stands as one of the world’s most iconic and mysterious Neolithic structures. Its reputation as a masterful feat of engineering and astronomical alignment has attracted countless visitors over the years, eager to marvel at its apparent alignment with the winter solstice. Yet, beneath its fame and grandeur lies a controversy that raises compelling questions: is the modern-day Newgrange an authentic representation of its ancient past, or has it been reconstructed into a speculative interpretation that strays from the truth?

Through photographic evidence and critiques from various archaeologists, it’s clear that Newgrange underwent significant interventions during its 20th-century restoration led by Michael J. O’Kelly. These changes have sparked heated debates among historians and archaeologists, leading some to question the monument’s authenticity and suggest that it may resemble a “Disneyland” for archaeology—a polished version of history that prioritizes spectacle over accuracy.

Newgrange - Monument or Disneyland? — Newgrange or Disneyland – (Newgrange – Monument or Disneyland?)

The Reconstruction Controversy: What Changed?

Pictures of Newgrange before and after its restoration reveal striking differences. Most notably, the “roof box,” a structure through which the winter solstice sunrise illuminates the central chamber, was repositioned and reconfigured during O’Kelly’s work. While the roof box undeniably enhances the site’s allure, critics argue that its prominence and functionality may have been exaggerated during the restoration to create a more visually and symbolically impactful feature. This modern emphasis on the roof box has elevated Newgrange to global media fame, transforming it from a historic site of curiosity into a tourist attraction.

Another major change was the addition of a gleaming white quartz façade framed by darker stones. While these materials were found on-site, their placement in the reconstruction was speculative, based on O’Kelly’s vision of how Neolithic builders might have arranged them. The reshaping of the mound itself and the construction of a retaining wall added further interventions that were not conclusively supported by the archaeological record.

Critics like Gabriel Cooney and Alan Marshall have highlighted these alterations as problematic. Cooney argues that the restoration may obscure earlier architectural practices, while Marshall questions the reliability of O’Kelly’s interpretations and the extensive reshaping of the cairn and passage. Such critiques emphasize the delicate balance between reconstruction and authenticity.

The Kinked Chamber: A Structural Puzzle

One of the most curious features of Newgrange is the kink in its passageway, which prevents it from being a straight corridor. If the chamber had not been reconstructed, sunlight during the winter solstice might only have travelled partway down the passage rather than illuminating the innermost chamber. This raises an intriguing question: why would Neolithic builders design the passage with this kink?

One explanation could be symbolic or ritualistic purposes, as many ancient structures incorporate elements that serve non-functional, symbolic roles. Alternatively, engineering constraints may have dictated the kink, such as the availability of materials or the need to stabilize the mound. However, if the kink was exaggerated—or even introduced—during restoration, this would significantly alter how sunlight interacts with the chamber. Modern “corrections” to the passage’s geometry might have extended the light’s reach artificially, creating an effect the Neolithic builders may never have intended.

The Roof Box’s Changes and Light Reduction

The roof box is a critical element in the solstice alignment, and its reconstruction has been a focal point of both admiration and critique. If, as photographic evidence and critiques suggest, the roof box was reconfigured and heightened during restoration, this alteration would undoubtedly affect how sunlight enters the passage. A higher or differently angled roof box might diminish the precision with which light reaches the inner chamber—or even stop the light short of the intended destination altogether.

O’Kelly’s team reconstructed the roof box based on an interpretation of fragmented stones, leading some critics to question the authenticity of its current form. While its alignment with the winter solstice sunrise has made it an iconic feature of Newgrange, its role in the monument’s Neolithic design remains uncertain. This raises further questions about whether the solstice effect we see today is a product of modern ingenuity rather than ancient innovation.

The Shifting Solstice: 3200 BCE vs Today

Astronomical alignment adds yet another layer of complexity to the Newgrange debate. Due to axial precession—the slow wobble of Earth’s axis over millennia—the position of the sunrise on the winter solstice in 3200 BCE would have differed slightly from today. While this change is minor (a few degrees in azimuth), it could still significantly impact the alignment. Even a small shift might cause the sunlight to miss the inner chamber entirely.

If the original builders oriented Newgrange’s passage to match the 3200 BCE solstice sunrise, today’s alignment may already deviate from their intent. Combined with potential inaccuracies introduced during reconstruction, the modern solstice effect could be more a product of modern reinterpretation than of Neolithic precision.

Accessibility Versus Accuracy

The chambers and passage were reinforced and possibly straightened during restoration, making the monument easier to explore for visitors. However, these interventions may have altered the original design, extending the light’s reach and emphasizing the solstice alignment in a way that might not reflect the builders’ intentions.

These efforts have undoubtedly made Newgrange more accessible and visually impressive, but they also risk prioritizing spectacle over authenticity. The roof box and solstice phenomenon have become central to the site’s branding, drawing large crowds and media attention each year. While this has brought Newgrange global recognition, it raises questions about whether its presentation has strayed too far from its original form.

A Broader Implication: Monument or Museum?

Newgrange is far from the only site facing such challenges. Around the world, historical monuments are reconstructed to varying degrees, with some prioritizing aesthetics and accessibility over strict fidelity to the past. Sites like the Acropolis in Athens and Stonehenge in England have faced similar debates about reconstruction versus preservation.

The consequences of reconstruction are profound. On one hand, it allows modern audiences to engage with history in a tangible, immersive way. On the other hand, it risks presenting an idealised or speculative version of the past, potentially misleading those who seek an authentic connection to historical eras.

Striking the Balance

The controversy surrounding Newgrange underscores the need for thoughtful approaches to reconstruction. While archaeological expertise and informed assumptions are invaluable, they must be tempered with caution to avoid overreaching into speculative territory. Transparency is key—providing visitors with information about what is reconstructed versus original can foster a deeper understanding and appreciation for the complexities of preserving historical sites.

In the case of Newgrange, its blend of ancient ingenuity and modern reinterpretation continues to captivate the world. Yet, as we aptly observed, the extent of its reconstruction raises essential questions about the ethics and accuracy of rebuilding history.

As we marvel at this iconic monument, we must also ask ourselves: should reconstructions aim to impress, or should they remain humbly tethered to the verifiable truths of the past? In the quest to bring history to life, how far is too far?

Audio Blog

Detailed Timeline of Main Events at Newgrange

4th and Early 3rd Millennia BC (Neolithic Period):

Construction of Neolithic passage tombs in Ireland, including Newgrange and the smaller tombs (K, L, Z, Z1) on the same ridge. These tombs are characterized by round mounds, contiguous kerbstones, and internal chambers (often cruciform with recesses).

c. 3200 BC (Neolithic Period):

Construction of the main cairn at Newgrange, featuring a round mound of turves and stones delimited by kerbstones. The entrance passage in the southeast leads to a cruciform burial chamber. Kerbstones K1 and K52 are the most elaborately decorated and have central vertical grooves.

c. 2500 BC (Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age):

Erection of the Great Circle of twelve monoliths surrounding the Newgrange cairn. This coincides with the approximate time of the Beaker culture in Britain and Ireland. The obliquity of the Earth’s axis is around 23° 59′ at this time, influencing sunrise and sunset directions.

2015 ±65 BC (Early Bronze Age):

Radiocarbon dating of charcoal samples found in burial pits near the base of Great Circle monolith GC-2. The base of GC-2 being above the rim of these pits suggests the monoliths were erected after the construction of the nearby Newgrange cairn.

1699:

Edward Lhwyd documents and creates a ground plan of Newgrange, indicating the monument was open at this time.

1746:

Thomas Wright creates a drawing of Newgrange, further confirming it was accessible.

1776:

Charles Vallancey surveys Newgrange, noting disturbance around the entrance area.

Early 1900s:

Evidence suggests Newgrange was still open to some extent.

1906:

Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer draws a comparison between Newgrange, Gavrinis (Brittany), and Maeshowe (Orkney) in his book, linking them astronomically.

1909:

In the second edition of his book, Lockyer explicitly mentions Newgrange’s orientation to the Winter Solstice.

By 1845:

According to George Wilkinson’s account and a drawing by Du Noyer, the large slab sealing the passage entrance had one end resting on kerbstone K1.

By 1892:

George Coffey’s representation shows the “doorstone” at the passage entrance lying prone.

October 1897:

George Russell (Æ) publishes “A dream of Angus Oge,” a fictional piece that includes a description of light entering a mound resembling Newgrange at dawn, possibly reflecting local knowledge or observation.

Summer 1962:

Professor Michael J. O’Kelly begins archaeological excavations at Newgrange. The monument is in a dilapidated state with trees, displaced cairn material, leaning passage orthostats, and an obscured roof-box.

1963:

O’Kelly’s team uncovers the roof-box during the excavation.

Late Summer 1966:

O’Kelly’s team restores the passage roof slabs and corbels, including the critical space (slit or gap) between roofstones RS1 and RS2 at the base of the roof-box. O’Kelly notes that the structure of the roof-box takes on “new meaning” during this stage, suggesting he recognized its intentional design.

Winter Solstice 1967:

Professor O’Kelly and his team are present in the burial chamber at sunrise. Sunlight penetrates through the roof-box and illuminates the chamber, confirming the winter solstice alignment.

1969:

Professor O’Kelly publishes a full description of the winter solstice phenomenon at Newgrange.

1976:

Professor O’Kelly, drawing on paleoclimate studies, suggests that clearer skies might have prevailed during the Bronze Age in Ireland, potentially aiding astronomical observations.

1982:

Professor Michael J. O’Kelly publishes his comprehensive book “Newgrange: Archaeology, art and legend,” detailing the excavations and the discovery of the winter solstice alignment.

1988 September 23:

Frank Prendergast surveys the Newgrange passage tomb and Great Circle monoliths.

1989 February 2:

A photograph of a shadow casting phenomenon on kerbstone K1 is recorded, later used for graphic reconstruction in Frank Prendergast’s 1991 paper.

1989:

Astronomer Tom Ray reviews J.D. Patrick’s earlier calculations regarding the solstitial alignment, conducting a new measured survey of the passage, chamber, and roof-box. He concludes that the roof-box was very probably designed with astronomical alignment intent.

1991:

Frank Prendergast publishes “Shadow Casting Phenomena at Newgrange,” detailing his research on potential calendrical functions of the Great Circle monoliths through shadow casting on kerbstones. His statistical analysis suggests that the placement of some monoliths (GC1, GC-1, GC-2, GC3, GC5) was deliberately chosen for solar shadow casting at astronomically significant times of the year.

2002:

Frank Prendergast and Tom Ray publish a paper questioning whether ancient astronomical alignments are fact or fiction, possibly referencing their earlier work on Newgrange.

2017:

Robert Hensey’s chapter “Rediscovering the Winter Solstice Alignment at Newgrange, Ireland” is published in “The Oxford Handbook of Light in Archaeology,” re-examining the discovery and interpretation of the winter solstice alignment, the role of local knowledge, and the reconstruction of the roof-box.

Cast of Characters and Brief Bios

Frank Prendergast: Researcher at Technological University Dublin (formerly Dublin Institute of Technology). Author of the 1991 paper “Shadow Casting Phenomena at Newgrange,” which explores the potential calendrical significance of the Great Circle monoliths through shadow analysis. He also conducted surveys of the site.
Michael J. O’Kelly (1915-1982): Professor of Archaeology at University College Cork. Led the extensive excavations at Newgrange from 1962 to 1975, which led to the rediscovery of the winter solstice alignment and the restoration of the monument. Author of the seminal book “Newgrange: Archaeology, art and legend” (1982).
Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer (1836-1920): English astronomer and founder of the journal Nature. In his books, particularly “Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered,” he was among the first to scientifically suggest astronomical orientations of prehistoric monuments, including Newgrange (specifically the winter solstice).
Tom Ray: Astronomer who conducted a measured survey of the passage, chamber, and roof-box at Newgrange in 1989, reviewing and refining earlier calculations regarding the winter solstice alignment. He supported the idea of intentional astronomical design of the roof-box.
Edward Lhwyd (1660-1709): Welsh naturalist, linguist, and antiquary. His documentation and ground plan of Newgrange in 1699 provide early evidence that the monument was open during that period.
Thomas Wright (1711-1786): English astronomer, mathematician, instrument maker, architect, and garden designer. His drawing of Newgrange in 1746 indicates the monument’s accessibility at the time.
Charles Vallancey (1725-1810): British army engineer and antiquarian in Ireland. His survey in 1776 noted disturbances around the entrance of Newgrange.
George Wilkinson: Likely an observer or recorder of Newgrange in 1845, whose account, noted by O’Kelly, described the position of the entrance “doorstone.”
George Du Noyer (1817-1869): Irish artist and antiquarian whose drawing from around 1845 also depicted the state of the entrance stone.
George Coffey (1857-1916): Keeper of Antiquities at the National Museum of Ireland. His representation of Newgrange by 1892 showed the entrance “doorstone” lying prone.
George Russell (Æ) (1867-1935): Irish poet, essayist, editor, and painter. His 1897 fictional piece “A dream of Angus Oge” contains a scene of light entering a mound at dawn, which some speculate may be based on observations or local knowledge of Newgrange.
Bob Hickey: A local individual whose reports to O’Kelly mentioned the sun entering Newgrange, potentially indicating pre-excavation awareness of the solstitial alignment within the local community.
Elizabeth Chesley Baity: American anthropologist who discussed the universal use of the gnomon in ancient cultures for observing shadow casting and tracking solar movements.
Carl Jung (1875-1961): Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who explored the relationship between human instinct, archetypes, and their symbolic manifestations, potentially relevant to understanding the motivations behind monuments like Newgrange.
Alexander Thom (1894-1985): British engineer who applied statistical methods to the study of prehistoric stone circles, including the analysis of axial alignments and their possible astronomical significance.
Gerald Hawkins (1928-2003): Astronomer known for his theories on the astronomical alignments of Stonehenge.
R. J. C. Atkinson (1920-1994): British prehistorian who critically reviewed Hawkins’ work on Stonehenge.
George Bain: Wrote about the stone circles at Clava, Scotland (1886-7), suggesting that the builders carefully observed the sun’s shadow to determine the placement of stones for calendrical purposes.
G. F. Mitchell and H. M. Parkes: Researchers whose work on plant pollen and prehistoric time zones (referenced by O’Kelly) provided insights into past climates in Ireland.
Knut Jessen: Proposed a system of time zones based on plant pollen deposits in prehistoric Ireland, used to infer past climatic conditions.
Michael Herity and George Eogan: Archaeologists who, in their 1989 work, adopted Jessen’s nomenclature and described the Sub-Boreal phase (including the time of the Great Circle) as being drier and warmer in Ireland.
Hubert Lamb (1913-1997): British climatologist who noted the increasing warmth in the post-glacial era and suggested that clearer skies during the time of megalithic monument construction might explain their potential as astronomical observatories.
Seamus Caulfield: Archaeologist who referenced paleoclimate in relation to his discovery of Neolithic stone-wall field systems in Co. Mayo, noting warmer temperatures around 3000 BC.
Douglas C. Heggie: Archaeologist and author of “Megalithic Science,” who discussed the statistical analysis of megalithic sites and the interpretation of astronomical alignments.
Euan MacKie: Archaeologist who has written on megalithic astronomy and the potential for sophisticated astronomical knowledge in prehistoric societies.
J. D. Patrick: Conducted earlier calculations regarding the winter solstice alignment at Newgrange, later reviewed by Tom Ray.
C.S. Wallace: Co-author with J.D. Patrick on a paper (1982) discussing an information theory approach to stone circle geometries.
Robert Hensey: Contemporary Irish archaeologist and author of “First Light: The Origins of Newgrange.” His 2017 chapter re-examines the discovery of the winter solstice alignment and the role of historical context.

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2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review

Posted on December 28, 2024 by admin

Introduction

Prehistoric Britain Blog Review 2024

Welcome to the Cutting Edge of Archaeological Discovery

Explore the groundbreaking world of Robert John Langdon’s blogs, a site dedicated to challenging conventional archaeological narratives and unveiling the hidden truths of prehistoric Britain. This blog is not just a collection of articles; it’s a journey into the past, fueled by innovative technology like LiDAR and a passion for uncovering the real stories behind ancient sites. The blog also questions many traditional views of well-known sites. Here, you’ll find a wealth of information, from investigations into the true purpose of ancient structures to challenges to accepted interpretations of historical events.(2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review)

Revolutionary Discoveries in 2024

In 2024, this blog has been at the forefront of archaeological discovery, achieving a level of insight that rivals, if not surpasses, many university departments. The posts utilize LiDAR technology to investigate sites with unprecedented detail. This has allowed the blog to re-evaluate many accepted theories, and this year, the focus has been on key sites such as Hambledon Hill, Cissbury Ring, White Sheet Camp, and South Cadbury Castle, which have all been investigated using LiDAR.

Challenging the Status Quo

The blog’s impact is evident in the topics covered, from the “Great Dorchester Aqueduct Hoax” to the idea that “Pillow Mounds” might be Bronze Age cremation sites rather than medieval rabbit warrens. It also reinterprets structures such as Wansdyke and Offa’s Dyke, questioning their traditional purpose. The blog has also embraced new ideas, using mathematics to uncover the Mesolithic origins of Car Dyke. The blog has also looked at the Post Glacial Flooding Hypothesis and how this may have affected the landscapes we see today. These posts don’t just present findings but challenge the very foundations of archaeological understanding.

Unlocking the Secrets of the Past

The blog offers an immersive experience with high-quality HD, FHD, 5K, and 8K LiDAR maps, captivating flyovers and videos. This commitment to scientific rigour and engaging presentation makes this blog a vital resource for anyone seeking to understand Britain’s rich and complex prehistory. The posts here aim to go beyond traditional interpretations and uncover evidence that has been previously overlooked. Join us as we continue to explore the fascinating mysteries of the past and reshape how we understand our history.

This year has seen a variety of fascinating and thought-provoking blog posts. Here’s a list of the posts published, with a brief description of each:

● The Great Dorchester Aqueduct Hoax

The feature long attributed to the Dorchester Roman aqueduct presents a fascinating but contentious case within archaeology. Its winding route, peculiar design, and unsubstantiated functional claims challenge conventional interpretations of Roman engineering in Britain. In this blog, we delve into key aspects of the feature, including its gradient, design, and capacity to deliver water, to uncover whether it truly served as an aqueduct or had a different purpose entirely. By critically examining the evidence and incorporating modern methodologies like LiDAR, we aim to provide a fresh perspective on this enigmatic structure.

● Rediscovering the Winter Solstice: The Original Winter Festival

The winter solstice, occurring around December 21st in the Northern Hemisphere, marks the shortest day and longest night of the year. This celestial event has been celebrated for millennia, symbolizing the rebirth of the sun and the promise of longer days ahead. Long before Christianity shaped the holiday calendar, ancient cultures observed the solstice with rituals and festivities that laid the groundwork for many modern winter traditions. .

● Wansdyke: A British Frontier Wall – ‘Debunked’

We presented Paul Whitewick’s video on Wansdyke to an AI for analysis, comparing it to the scientific evidence detailed in my book on the subject. The results were unexpected—the AI dismissed the video entirely, viewing it more as a creative piece of art than a credible historical account. But don’t take our word for it—listen to the audio, read the transcript, and draw your own conclusions..

● AI now Supports – Homo Superior

We compiled all the latest available knowledge about Neanderthals, Homo sapiens, and their potential interbreeding and fed it into an AI engine. We aimed to explore how a species like the Cro-Magnon might have developed as a hybrid between these two groups. Specifically, we asked the AI to analyze the likely physical appearance and attributes of such a species if they inherited traits from both Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. The key parameters we provided included their robust hybrid genetics, their reliance on a non-agricultural diet of high-protein foods like reindeer meat, fish, and fruit, and their tendency to interbreed primarily within their own hybrid group rather than with other Homo sapiens populations.

● Maritime Diffusion Model for Megaliths in Europe: A Groundbreaking Study

The study by, Schulz Paulsson, (Bettina. (2019). Radiocarbon dates and Bayesian modeling support maritime diffusion model for megaliths in Europe. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116. 201813268. 10.1073/pnas.1813268116.) which uses Radiocarbon dates and Bayesian modelling, supports the maritime diffusion model for megaliths in Europe and offers a transformative perspective on the origins and spread of megalithic structures across Europe. This research challenges traditional narratives through cutting-edge radiocarbon dating and Bayesian statistical modelling and provides compelling evidence that maritime routes played a pivotal role in disseminating megalithic culture.

● AI now supports my Post-Glacial Flooding Hypothesis

Over a decade ago, I proposed a groundbreaking idea that challenged conventional archaeology and geology. Drawing on 30 years of experience in landscape archaeology and cartography, I argued that rivers during the post-glacial period were significantly higher than they are today. Contrary to long-held geological assumptions that the meltwater from the last Ice Age vanished without a trace, I suggested that much of it remained, creating elevated waterways. These raised rivers, I posited, were pivotal to prehistoric life, providing essential routes for the construction of megalithic sites along their edges using advanced boat technology—astonishingly, over 5,000 years before archaeologists had traditionally believed such maritime innovations existed.

● Lidar Investigation Hambledon Hill – NOT an ‘Iron Age Fort’

This post presents findings from a LiDAR investigation of Hambledon Hill, arguing it is not an Iron Age fort. Hambledon Hill’s significance as a prehistoric site continues to reshape our understanding of early Britain. Far from a simple Iron Age hillfort, the site reveals a complex history with roots in the Mesolithic period, dating back around 8,000 years. Recent findings challenge the earlier classification of a causewayed enclosure, instead uncovering a landscape marked by multiple pits and quarries, which suggests a hub for trade and social activity rather than a defensive stronghold.

● Unmasking the “Iron Age Hillfort” Myth

I’m challenging the long-held belief that many sites across Britain, traditionally labeled as “Iron Age Hillforts,” were built primarily for defence. Instead, I argue these sites, rather than being fortresses meant for warfare, were vibrant centres of trade and commerce, with unique features that connect them to waterborne transport and economic activity. By meticulously examining archaeological findings and employing the latest LiDAR technology, I aim to deconstruct the conventional narrative surrounding these sites, focusing on three prominent examples: Danebury, Maiden Castle, and Old Sarum.

● Exploring Britain’s Flooded Past: A Personal Journey

This post describes a personal journey into understanding Britain’s flooded past. My recent exploration into Britain’s prehistoric landscape has opened my eyes to a fascinating and often overlooked aspect of our history: the impact of post-glacial flooding. The sheer magnitude of meltwater released at the end of the last ice age dramatically reshaped the environment, creating vast waterways that are notably more significant than the rivers we see now. This realisation has sparked my curiosity to understand how these ancient waterways influenced the lives of our ancestors and shaped the landscape we know today.

● Lidar Investigation Cissbury Ring through time

This blog post examines the Cissbury Ring over time using LiDAR technology. This is a journey through time looking at the prehistoric site of CISSBURY RING and its surrounding Landscape based on the new third (2020) edition book of the best seller – that contains conclusive and extended evidence of Robert John Langdon’s hypothesis, that rivers of the past were higher than today – which changes the history of not only Britain, but the world. In his first book of the trilogy ‘The Post-Glacial Hypothesis’, Langdon discovered that Britain was flooded directly after the last Ice Age, which remained waterlogged in to the Holocene period through raised river levels, not only in Britain, but worldwide.

● Car Dyke – ABC News PodCast

This post refers to a podcast about Car Dyke on ABC News. The book ‘The Car Dyke LiDAR Atlas’ presents a thorough investigation of the Car Dyke, a large ancient waterway in Britain. Using LiDAR technology, the author argues that the Dyke is much older than previously thought, dating back to the Mesolithic/Neolithic periods, and was likely used for transportation and water management rather than simply as a Roman drainage channel or defensive barrier. The book features detailed maps and analysis of the Dyke’s construction and course, including insights into the surrounding landscape and archaeological finds, to support the author’s conclusions.

● Pillow Mounds: A Bronze Age Legacy of Cremation?

Pillow mounds have traditionally been interpreted as medieval rabbit warrens, but recent archaeological discoveries suggest a far older and more significant role tied to Bronze Age cremation rituals. Evidence uncovered in recent excavations, combined with historical parallels from other sites, points to these mounds being used for cremation or as places for the burial of ashes, later repurposed during the medieval period for rabbit farming. Below, we explore the evidence from recent excavation reports that supports this hypothesis, showing how discolored soil, charcoal remains, and burial practices align with Bronze Age funerary rituals.

● The Mystery of Pillow Mounds: Are They Really Medieval Rabbit Warrens?

Pillow mounds have long been identified by archaeologists as rabbit warrens—structures built during the medieval and post-medieval periods to manage rabbit populations for fur and meat. These long, low earthworks, often equipped with drainage ditches, were thought to provide ideal conditions for rabbits to burrow and breed. The case of Trowlesworthy Warren on Dartmoor is a well-known example, where there are now believed to be 64 pillow mounds spread across a 5 km area. However, recent archaeological findings and a closer look at the logistics of large-scale rabbit farming in this landscape challenge the established interpretation.

● Lidar Investigation White Sheet Camp

The video (not mine!!) provides a valuable visual of the landscape around White Sheet Camp, illustrating how much detail is obscured when viewed from ground level. This highlights why traditional methods of landscape surveying, which relied heavily on ground-based observation, often missed key features. Unsurprisingly, many peer-reviewed books contain inaccuracies, as walking the terrain without modern tools like LiDAR leads to an incomplete understanding of these ancient sites. The video helps to demonstrate the importance of using advanced technologies in revealing the full complexity of these historical landscapes, rather than subjective observations. Note that the Neolithic Causeway is the Cross-Dyke and the Barrow is probably a fire beacon for the boats to follow to the trading site.

● Archaeology: A Bad Science?

This post discusses whether archaeology is a reliable science. Archaeology, often hailed as the key to understanding our past, stands at a contentious crossroads between the humanities and the sciences. Archaeology is largely interpretative and subjective, unlike pure sciences, which rely heavily on quantitative data and mathematical models to test hypotheses. The field depends on analysing artefacts, structures, and cultural remains, often incomplete or degraded. This reliance on fragmentary evidence means that much archaeological interpretation is speculative, making it difficult to draw definitive conclusions. The subjective nature of archaeology raises questions about its scientific rigour, as interpretations can vary significantly depending on the archaeologist’s perspective, cultural background, or theoretical framework.

● Mathematics Meets Archaeology: Discovering the Mesolithic Origins of Car Dyke

This blog explores the use of mathematics to reveal the Mesolithic origins of Car Dyke. In archaeology, theories about ancient structures and sites have traditionally been shaped by subjective interpretations, often constrained by the limited evidence. The lack of precise data, historical bias, and conflicting narratives have left the field somewhat speculative. However, recent advancements in mathematical modelling have introduced new ways to derive data-driven conclusions. We can dig deeper into the ancient past by applying Bayesian and Spatial Analysis, extracting valuable insights with greater certainty. One particularly compelling case study is the re-evaluation of Car Dyke, a linear earthwork historically associated with Roman engineering. Through these combined mathematical approaches, we have uncovered evidence that suggests Car Dyke may have been constructed much earlier than previously thought, potentially dating back to the Mesolithic period.

● Lidar Investigation Car Dyke – North Section

This post presents findings from a LiDAR investigation of the northern section of Car Dyke. Car Dyke is one of the most enigmatic and intriguing remnants of Roman engineering in Britain. Stretching across the Fens of Eastern England, this ancient waterway has puzzled historians, archaeologists, and enthusiasts for centuries. Theories about its purpose and origin are as varied as they are compelling, reflecting the complexities of interpreting ancient structures without definitive historical records. This introduction aims to present a comprehensive overview of Car Dyke, encompassing both past and current theories regarding its use and origin.

● Rethinking Ancient Boundaries: The Vallum and Offa’s Dyke

This post reconsiders the traditional understanding of the Vallum and Offa’s Dyke as ancient boundaries. History brims with unsung heroes, those outsiders whose contributions leap from the shadows, not through the traditional channels of academic rigour but via the sheer force of innovative thought. These individuals, often sidelined by mainstream science for lacking formal credentials, have propelled progress with their unorthodox insights. In his eloquent reflections on science and humanity, Jacob Bronowski would have appreciated these figures ‘courage to challenge established disciplines’ dogmas and orthodoxy. Through their unconventional viewpoints, they invite us to step out of the “propaganda box” of discipline norms and reconsider the broader knowledge landscape with fresh eyes

● Professor Bonkers and the mad, mad World of Archaeology

This post is about a character named Professor Bonkers, and their perspective on the world of archaeology. We have examined the efforts of Professor Ray in his endeavour to prove that transporting bluestones by land to Stonehenge using sledges and dragging is feasible. He believes the journey is relatively flat with gentle gradients, based on his walk on modern roads engineered for gradual steepness over the last thousand years. However, he failed to consider the reality of the steep drops and river valleys the original journey would have encountered.

● Lidar Investigation South Cadbury Castle – Camelot

This post presents the findings of a LiDAR investigation of South Cadbury Castle, also known as Camelot. The hillfort is formed by a 7.28 hectares (18.0 acres) plateau surrounded by ramparts on the surrounding slopes of the limestone Cadbury Hill. The site has been excavated in the late 19th and early 20th century by James Bennett and Harold St George Gray. More recent examination of the site was conducted in the 1960s by Leslie Alcock and since 1992 by the South Cadbury Environs Project. These have revealed artifacts from human occupation and use from the Neolithic through the Bronze and Iron Ages. The site was reused by the Roman forces and again from c. 470 until some time after 580. In the 11th century, it temporarily housed a Saxon mint. Evidence of various buildings at the site has been unearthed, including a “Great Hall”, round and rectangular house foundations, metalworking, and a possible sequence of small rectangular temples or shrines.

● The Stonehenge Hospital

This post seems to discuss the theory that Stonehenge was used as a hospital. Timothy Darvill, a distinguished figure in Archaeology at Bournemouth University, has put forward a groundbreaking theory. His proposition that Stonehenge was a healing sanctuary, as detailed in his book ‘Stonehenge: The Biography of a Landscape ‘, is supported by compelling evidence from human remains found in burial mounds near the site. These remains, Darvill argues, belonged to individuals who were ailing before their demise, suggesting a unique purpose for the monument.

● Prehistoric Burial Practices of Britain

This blog post explores prehistoric burial practices in Britain. Prehistoric Britain saw complex and evolving burial practices, starting with the excarnation of bodies. Dolmens, characterised by their capstones balanced on upright stones, were used as platforms to expose bodies to birds, and wooden palisades encircled the platform, preventing terrestrial animals and rodents from scavenging

● Is Archaeology a dying discipline?

This blog post addresses the question of whether archaeology is becoming obsolete. There are many challenges archaeology faces as a discipline. The historical misconceptions and the evolving understanding of our past are significant aspects of archaeological study

● Lidar Investigation Top Ten misidentified Fire Beacons in British History

This post explores the top ten misidentified fire beacons in British history, using LiDAR. Misidentification of objects by archaeologists is an unfortunately frequent occurrence, particularly evident in the study of prehistoric fire beacons. This phenomenon can often be attributed to the curricula of archaeological academic programs, which may not always foster a rigorous scientific attitude. This issue is compounded by the perception that these programs are less demanding than disciplines like physics, chemistry, and biology, which typically require a more robust foundation in logic and mathematics for professional success.

● Lidar Investigation The Great Chichester Hoax – A Bridge too far?

This post examines the Great Chichester Hoax, possibly concerning a misidentified bridge, using LiDAR. It seems I’ve once again stirred up some controversy among the old archaeology club members of Chichester. A few years back, there was quite a buzz in Chichester when they unearthed a Roman Villa complete with a bathhouse. Eager to contribute, I headed to the site with my drone, hoping to capture aerial shots. However, my offer was turned down, perhaps due to the slew of questions I posed to the lead archaeologist. I was particularly intrigued by the water sourcing and drainage for the bathhouse, especially given the presence of the prehistoric dyke that ran through the park. Yet, they seemed to disregard the sizable bank at the edge of the cricket ground.

● The Logistical Impossibility of Defending Maiden Castle

Maiden Castle, Britain’s largest Iron Age hill fort, has always been a subject of fascination and mystery. Its impressive size and strategic location suggest it was once a significant military stronghold. However, recent advancements in archaeological technology, specifically Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), have sparked debates about the actual feasibility of defending such a vast fortification by examining the logistical requirements necessary to sustain a large garrison here, juxtaposed with the lack of physical evidence for such activity, a new narrative emerges, challenging traditional interpretations of Maiden Castle’s historical significance

● Beyond Stone and Bone: Rethinking the Megalithic Architects of Northern Europe

Archaeology often presents the megalithic structures of Northern Europe as enigmatic remnants of the past, but traditional interpretations of their purposes—defensive or territorial—are increasingly challenged by new research. These ancient monuments, including Stonehenge and Silbury Hill, required a level of logistical and communal organisation akin to modern engineering feats like the Channel Tunnel, suggesting sophisticated, large-scale cooperation among prehistoric societies. This blog post explores how regular trading and the use of established transportation networks likely supported such monumental projects. It argues that the labour force involved was large and part of a highly structured society, possibly operating under an early compensation system for their colossal efforts. As we delve deeper into these ancient marvels, we uncover a society that may have been as advanced and cooperative as any known civilisation, revealing a new appreciation for the capabilities and ingenuity of our ancestors.

● The Giants of Prehistory: Cro-Magnon and the Ancient Monuments

Peering into the mists of prehistory, we discern figures as monumental as the structures they erected. The Cro-Magnons, our Homo Superior ancestors, tower over early European landscapes not only in their formidable physical stature but also through their enduring contributions to ancient engineering and societal development. This essay delves into how their exceptional physical and cognitive abilities enabled them to construct massive stone monuments across Northern Europe, reshaping our understanding of Stone Age capabilities.

● The Stonehenge Code: Unveiling its 10,000-Year-Old Secret

Recent carbon dating from the Bluestone quarry sites offers compelling and irrefutable mathematical evidence that Stonehenge’s construction dates back to the Mesolithic era. This new data suggests Stonehenge is 5000 years older than experts had previously believed, challenging established views on its origins and adding new depth to our understanding of this ancient monument.

● Mysteries of the Oldest Boatyard Uncovered

I’ve always been fascinated by how archaeological discoveries can unravel threads of history. Still, they can also become entangled in webs of misinterpretation and incorrect dating, leading to significant findings being dismissed or misunderstood. A case in point occurred in a Welsh housing estate where ancient slipways were initially mistaken for longhouses. This confusion sparked a question: why would such elaborate structures be necessary for something as simple as a lightweight dugout canoe?

(The Oldest Boatyard in the World Uncovered) — (2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review)

● ATLANTIS: Discovery with Dan Snow Debunked

Dan Snows Documentary debunked with Bob and Alice.

● The Troy, Hyperborea and Atlantis Connection

The connections between the legends of Atlantis and Hyperborea, and the works of Homer represent a fascinating intersection of myth, philosophy, and epic narrative within ancient Greek literature. These stories not only provide insights into the geographical and cultural understandings of the Greeks but also reflect deeper philosophical and ethical concerns that permeate Greek thought. Below, we explore these themes in greater detail, delving into how these mythical and literary works intertwine and what they signify about ancient Greek civilisation.

● Hollows, Sunken Lanes and Palaeochannels

Standing on the worn, weathered path of a holloway, enveloped by the towering earthen walls on either side, I often contemplate the origins of these enigmatic features. As a wanderer drawn to these ancient pathways, I’ve always been fascinated by the layers of history and mystery that seem to permeate the very soil beneath my feet. Holloways, these sunken roads carved into the landscape, carry with them the aura of countless stories, but their formation captivates my curiosity the most.

● Stonehenge: Discovery with Dan Snow Debunked

Dan Snows Documentary debunked with Bob and Alice.

● Stonehenge, Doggerland and Atlantis connection

The third book in my trilogy aims to weave together the discoveries made across Britain, with a particular focus on Stonehenge, to shed light on a civilisation that archaeologists have termed the ‘megalithic builders.’ This civilisation is markedly distinct from those that came after, showcasing an extraordinary level of capability and engineering skill in moving vast stones and constructing earthworks that have endured for nearly ten thousand years. These achievements are even more striking when compared to the structures left by the Romans, who occupied these lands for hundreds of years yet left behind fewer enduring monuments.

● The Bluestone Enigma

The papers published by researchers from the University of London, Southampton, and Manchester, including Mike Parker-Pearson and his team, regarding the discovery of the quarries at Craig Rhos-y-Felinand the bluestone megaliths at Carn Goedog have been a significant contribution to our understanding of Stonehenge’s origins. This research brought to light the fascinating theory that Stonehenge was initially constructed in Wales and then transported to Salisbury Plain around 500 years later.

Giants of Prehistory: Cro-Magnon — (2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review)

● Digging Up Britain’s Past – Debunked

Dig Up Britain Stonehenge Documentary debunked with Bob and Alice.

● FREE Stonehenge LiDAR Maps

Here is the perfect resaerch resource for any bidding arcaheologist – 3D LiDAR Maps – there are free and can be downloaded by clicking the Right Site of the Mouse and saving it to your hard Drive for closer inspection, with you PC/Mobile reader software. (FREE Stonehenge LiDAR Maps)

● Prehistoric Canals – Wansdyke

If you study archaeology at university or even on an ordinance survey map at length, you will notice strange earthworks on the sides of hills of Britain, with no rational explanation as to why they are there and for what reason. These features are mostly ignored at university, or an excuse is made for their construction. The reality is that these features do not make any sense unless there are other factors in operation which have been ignored.

The first thing to notice is that the word ‘Dyke’ is associated with water. It does seem strange you would call an earthwork on top of a hill a Dyke, unless there was some history passed down through the years to its actual use. If we look at the most famous Dyke in Britain, ‘Offa’, we notice that it is attributed to a Saxon King and, therefore, could not be prehistoric. Or is this a clear indication of how archaeologists find excuses for these features rather than factual, empirical evidence?

● The Great Stone Transportation Hoax

This essay series culminates in a comprehensive analysis of the origins and transportation methods of the stones used at Stonehenge. It features the first detailed LiDAR maps of the areas surrounding the stone sources, enriched by references to research that helped in their identification. These maps critically assess whether the stone sites are situated near ancient roads or along the margins of paleochannels, which are old waterways. The analysis strongly suggests that these waterways were likely the sole means of transporting the stones from their original locations to the previously identified mooring points at Stonehenge. Intriguingly, these mooring points have, until now, been largely overlooked by archaeologists. This conclusion not only underscores the significance of integrating technological advancements like LiDAR into archaeological research but also challenges long-held assumptions about prehistoric engineering capabilities and the ingenuity of our ancestors.

● Stonehenge Stone Transportation

Exploring the origins and transportation of the stones used to construct Stonehenge continues to be a fascinating subject, ripe with theories and controversies. The viral interest generated by my blog post this week, which highlighted a map showing three known sites of the stones’ origins, barely scratches the surface of this complex logistical puzzle. Indeed, there are stones from even greater distances, opening a myriad of questions about how these megaliths were transported to their final resting place at Stonehenge. This essay aims to delve deeper into these logistics, providing a comprehensive overview based on the latest research and theories.

●Archaeology in the Post-Truth Era

In the past ten years, I have faced significant challenges in establishing the validity of my claim that Linear Earthworks are prehistoric canals. Many people have dismissed my theory, but I have not let that stop me. I undertook a comprehensive survey of 1500 Historic England’s Scheduled Linear Earthworks, and the findings culminated in the first book of a quadrilogy series detailing the East Wansdyke area. This publication is a significant personal milestone and an unprecedented achievement in the field of archaeology that no university or research team has matched.

● The Fury of the Past: Natural Disasters in Historical and Prehistoric Britain

Over the recent span of years, there has been a marked tendency to present images of climatic upheaval—storms that rend the fabric of local communities and touch the lives of individuals with their tempestuous hands. In the discourse on flooding, an almost theatrical emphasis is placed upon the metrics of catastrophe: the voluminous descent of rain and the gales’ ferocious velocity. Amidst these narratives, a phrase of gravitas, ‘since records began,’ is often delicately woven, lending weight to the tales of unprecedented climatic fury that segment our years into records of seasonal extremities.

● Mesolithic River Avon

At the outset, the clay-with-flints, a vestige of ancient weathering and erosion, stands as a testament to the relentless forces of nature that sculpted the landscape. Born from the remnants of Palaeogene sediments and the dissolution of chalk, these deposits serve as silent witnesses to the Pleistocene’s cold embrace. Their presence on the hilltop flats signifies a chronological anchor, predating the rhythmic succession of river terraces that stitch the valley’s quilt.

● The Rivers of the Past were Higher – an idiot’s guide

Fifteen years have elapsed since I introduced what some might label a ‘revolutionary’ concept, a brainchild born from my earlier explorations in archaeology. My investigations, particularly the graphical representation of 50 sites encompassing Stonehenge and its surrounding barrows, revealed a striking pattern: all these locations consistently occupied the upper 30 percentile, perched halfway up a hill or higher for the uninitiated.

● How Lidar will change Archaeology

In the profound tapestry of human history, the emergence of Lidar archaeology technology stands as a beacon, illuminating hidden chapters and rewriting the narrative of our past. As we traverse the landscapes of antiquity, a remarkable revelation comes to light through the lens of Lidar – the Linear Earthworks that crisscross our ancient terrains. Driven by laser precision, this technological marvel exposes a new dimension in historical understanding that challenges conventional wisdom and prompts us to reconsider the nature of these enigmatic earthworks.

● Caerfai promontory fort – archaeological nonsense

In the latest installment of Digging for Britain’s Season 11, the spotlight turns to the intriguing Caerfai Promontory Fort, also known as Penpleidiau, perched on the edge of Wales. Nestled approximately 1.3km southeast of St David’s, this archaeological site, with its formidable features, compels a reevaluation of traditional interpretations and invites us to question the prevailing coastal ‘Hill Fort’ narrative.

● Digging for Britain Debunked – Cerne Abbas 2

In the first part of our exploration, we delved into the televised program ‘Digging for Britain’ and scrutinised the methodology employed by the purported experts, questioning the reliability of their conclusions regarding the dating of Cerne Abbas. Our investigation highlighted flaws in the sampling process, particularly the oversight of soil creep, which significantly impacts the interpretation of the site’s history.

● Avebury Post-Glacial Flooding

Recently, I received a message from my friend Chris at Lambourne Photography who shared new winter photos of Avebury. The landscape, experiencing recorded rainfall, has begun to flood, capturing my keen interest. This flooding aligns with the predictions in my prehistoric Avebury maps, considering the post-glacial flooding during the Mesolithic period (10k to 4k BCE).

● Digging for Britain – Cerne Abbas 1 of 2

In a recent instalment of ‘Digging for Britain,’ Alice Roberts stirred the archaeological pot by asserting that the Dorset Chalk Giant (Cerne Abbas) had Saxon origins rather than the presumed prehistoric roots. The revelation added a layer of intrigue, especially for someone like me, deeply entrenched in Landscape Archaeology. At first glance, the giant’s features seemed to echo a Neolithic connection, reminiscent of the Uffingham White horse. Both figures boasted natural harbours in the hillside, suggesting potential prehistoric maritime use.

● Britain’s First Road – Stonehenge Avenue

As the waters began to recede, the architects of Stonehenge found themselves confronted with a formidable engineering challenge: how to contend with the diminishing groundwater table while ensuring the Stonehenge moat remained adequately filled. In the preceding discussion, we established the application of a clay waterproofing layer to transform the Stonehenge moat into a reservoir akin to a dew pond. In this chapter, I delve into the intricacies of their solution—a newly constructed earthwork known as ‘The Avenue,’ complete with its own moat designed to bring the waters closer to the monumental bathing moat.

Other Blogs

2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review

8000-year-old Cro-Magnon skull

Vikings, Doggerland, and the Last Survivors of Europe’s Lost Waterworld

(2024 Prehistoric Britain Blog Review)

Tag: Bronze Age

If Troy was really at Hisarlık, Homer has given us a geographical problem hiding in plain sight

Before We Follow Odysseus: How Old Is the Story We Are Actually Reading?

What exactly are the Iliad and Odyssey?

A VERY OLD STORY THAT WAS KEPT ALIVE BY HUMAN MEMORY BEFORE IT BECAME A BOOK.

🗣️ HOW COULD A STORY THIS LARGE SURVIVE WITHOUT WRITING?

⏳ HOW FAR BACK COULD THE TROJAN STORY GO?

whatever historical events originally generated the tradition

the written geographical names we eventually inherit.

🌍 STORIES TRAVEL — AND GEOGRAPHY CAN TRAVEL WITH THEM

THE LANGUAGE ITSELF HAS A HISTORY OF MOVEMENT AND MODIFICATION.

WE KNOW THE ORAL SYSTEM WAS CAPABLE OF DOING IT.

🏛️ COULD LOCAL TOWNS HAVE BEEN ADDED TO PLEASE LOCAL AUDIENCES?

💰 WAS THERE A COMMERCIAL MOTIVE?

PERFORMANCE.

AN AUDIENCE THAT WANTED TO HEAR HIS VERSION.

📜 FROM BARD TO “HOMER”

🧭 NAMES ARE NOT THE SAME AS GEOGRAPHY

🏛️ CULTURAL LABELS

🌍 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

🔍 THE STORY MAY BE OLDER THAN ITS MAP

an ancient inherited story,

a later geographical vocabulary familiar to the audiences who eventually preserved and recorded it.

IT CANNOT MOVE THE NORTH STAR.

🧭 A POTENTIALLY TESTABLE PREHISTORIC GEOGRAPHICAL RECORD.

Our examination of the first two books of Homer’s Iliad has already produced an unexpected result.

🌊 NORTHERN / LONG-DISTANCE MODEL: 13

☀️ LOCAL GREEK–ANATOLIAN MODEL: 0

🧭 THE JOURNEY HOME.

🚢 THE JOURNEY SHOULD BE SIMPLE

TROY ➡️ ITHACA

🌊 560 NAUTICAL MILES

roughly 645 statute miles

📅 DAYS.

ONE TO TWO WEEKS

⏳ TEN YEARS.

⏳ THE TEN YEARS WERE NOT TEN YEARS OF CONTINUOUS SAILING

📖 HOMER TELLS US FROM THE FIRST LINES THAT THIS IS A GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNEY

🚨 EVEN MORE IMPORTANTLY — EVERYONE ELSE HAS ALREADY GONE HOME

🧭 AND HOMER ACTUALLY GIVES US NAVIGATION INSTRUCTIONS

ON HIS LEFT

⭐ CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

🧭 DIRECTION

🌊 OPEN-SEA TRAVEL

⏳ AND SAILING DURATION.

🚢 THEN HOMER GIVES US THE NUMBER: SEVENTEEN DAYS

🌊 17 DAYS AT SEA

🌫️ THEN WE REACH THE CIMMERIANS

🌞 Is this a normal Mediterranean environmental description?

🌊 HOMER EVEN TAKES US TO “OCEANUS”

🌪️ THE WEATHER NEEDS TESTING TOO

🗺️ THE PEOPLE ARE JUST AS IMPORTANT AS THE WEATHER

WHERE DOES THAT COMPLETE PACKAGE FIT BEST?

⚠️ THIS IS THE SAME MISTAKE WE FOUND WITH THE ILIAD

1️⃣ Read Homer.

2️⃣ Extract the physical evidence.

3️⃣ Reconstruct the journey.

4️⃣ Calculate directions and sailing distances.

5️⃣ Compare climates and environments.

6️⃣ Compare populations and cultures.

7️⃣ THEN identify the most probable geography.

🔬 AND THIS TIME WE CAN ACTUALLY DO THE MATHEMATICS

⏱️ TIME

🧭 DIRECTION

⭐ NAVIGATION

🌊 DISTANCE

🌬️ WEATHER

🌍 ENVIRONMENT.

🚨 THE CENTRAL PROBLEM

Odysseus leaves Troy.

He intends to sail home.

Home is Ithaca.

Other Achaeans successfully make their own returns.

Odysseus becomes displaced through a vast maritime world.

He encounters numerous foreign peoples and environments.

He reaches extraordinarily remote locations.

One later sailing leg alone lasts seventeen days.

His complete return takes ten years.

560 NAUTICAL MILES APART.

IT IS A PROBLEM THAT DEMANDS AN EXPLANATION.

**Our examination of the first two books of Homer’s Iliad has already produced an unexpected result.**